Robin Campbell-Reading Stories With Young Children-Trentham Books (2009)

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Robin Campbell

young childrenreading stories with

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Reading Stories with Young Children

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Reading Stories with

Young ChildrenRobin Campbell

Trentham BooksStoke on Trent, UK and Sterling, USA

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Trentham Books Limited

Westview House 22883 Quicksilver Drive

734 London Road Sterling

Oakhill VA 20166-2012Stoke on Trent USA

Staffordshire

England ST4 5NP

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,

electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or

any information storage or retrieval system, without prior

permission in writing from the publishers.

First published 2009

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British

Library

ISBN: 978 1 85856 452 4

Designed and typeset by Trentham Print Design Ltd, Chester

and printed in Great Britain by Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd.

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Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction • 1

Chapter 2

Reading stories interactively• 15

Chapter 3

Reading stories in the classroom: getting started • 37

Chapter 4

The importance of narrative and quality books • 45

Chapter 5

Reading stories and print features • 63

Chapter 6

Activities based on reading stories • 75

Chapter 7

Interactive reading activities • 91

Chapter 8

Interactive writing activities • 103

Chapter 9

Mathematics, science and social studies activities • 113

Chapter 10

A last word • 119

References • 121

Children’s books • 129

Index• 131

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1Introduction

When young children have stories read to them as part of

a normal day they learn about reading, they act like

readers and they become readers with an interest in

books. Young children demonstrate this to adults constantly. Re-

cently, after just a couple of readings by an adult of Four FierceKittens(Dunbar, 1991), Louie age 3 years, 9 months demonstrated

how much he had learned of a repeated sentence in the story:

Adult Said the marmalade kitten,

spiking her claws

‘I am a terrible tiger!

I shall hunt hen out of her hutch.’

And she tried to growlLouie (But she didn’t know how)

She could only go...

miaow miaow

And hen went

CLUCK CLUCK CLUCK

Adult Said the black little kitten

with a glint in his eye ...

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Louie acted like a reader as he recalled a repeated sentence of the

story. So although he was not yet attending directly to the print, he

was well on the way to becoming a reader.

Reading stories with young children at home and in school has a

long and illustrious history. Huey (1908) argued that the parent

and the young child reading a book was the road to success: ‘the

secret of it all lies in parent’s reading aloud to and with the child’

(p332). A century later an overview of the research on reading

aloud led by Zuckerman concluded that reading stories at home

‘promotes emergent literacy and language development’ and ‘a

love of reading’ (Duursma, Augustyn and Zuckerman, 2008). Thereare numerous studies that have emphasised the importance of

reading stories with young children. When we create book-loving

schools and homes children respond by wanting to read (Michael

Rosen.co.uk). The enjoyment, the learning and the encourage-

ment of the child towards reading have all sustained the activity.

But recently the primary school curriculum has become saturated

with documents, strategies, targets and testing, testing, testing. Somuch so that sometimes there may appear to be so many

accountability boxes to be ticked and plans to complete that

fundamental aspects of literacy can be forgotten. Sadly, story read-

ing is one key area that might seem possible to put to one side, as

other more mundane activities have to be shown to be completed.

Yet story reading must remain as a daily feature of primary school

life because the literacy learning thus achieved and the desire to

read that is created are far too important to be lost.

An earlier book of mine appeared in the USA with the title Read-

Alouds with Young Children (Campbell, 2001). The term ‘read-

aloud’ is used in the United States to describe the worldwide

phenomenon of an adult reading a book to and with a young child

or a group of children (Trelease, 1995). Another text from America,

although written by Australian author Mem Fox (2001), refers to

‘Reading Aloud to Our Children’. In New Zealand the same practice

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

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is termed ‘storybook reading’ (Phillips and McNaughton, 1990)

while in the United Kingdom it is most often called ‘story reading’

(Campbell, 1990) or simply Reading stories with young children.

This book explores reading stories both at home and at school

with young children. Most of the observations for it took place in

classrooms in England, predominately nursery or pre-school

classrooms with 3 and 4 year olds, 5 year olds in reception class

and 6 and 7 year olds in years 1 and 2. A few observations extended

to other primary classrooms up to year 6 (age 11).

A story reading can stand alone as an enjoyable activity, but for

most children being able to respond to the story extends their

enjoyment and furthers their understanding. Reading stories with

young children focuses on the reading and the activities that can

be developed from it. Teachers of young children and teacher edu-

cators may find this book useful as a means of reconsidering story

reading and its contribution to a literacy curriculum. Parents too

will be interested to note how reading stories at home provides a

foundation for children’s reading and writing development.

During readings the adult often encourages the youngest children

to participate as the story is being read. So Louie was already con-

tributing key phrases during a story reading when he was 2 years

old.

Adult ‘A leak in the roof.

Oh, what bad luck!

This is a job for...’

Louie ‘Fix-It Duck.’

In that instance the frequent use at the end of a sentence of Fix-It

Duck(Alborough, 2001) made it easy for Louie to become part of

the interactive reading. In other books the use of rhyming like

luck/duckhelps the child to contribute to the reading.

Then subsequently, not only do the children contribute, they alsorespond in various ways to the story that has been read (Neuman,

INTRODUCTION

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1998). The interactive story reading is an important literacy acti-

vity that is recognised as a developmentally appropriate practice

for young children (International Reading Association, 1998). Sup-

port for the activity includes research evidence from projects ex-ploring literacy development at home, and explorations of story

readings in schools. The power of the interactive story readings to

support children’s literacy learning is enhanced when those read-

ings are repeated (McGee and Schickedanz, 2007).

Literacy development at home

The Children Learning to Read Project, the longitudinal study

directed by Gordon Wells in Bristol, is frequently cited. In this

study, children were observed from shortly after their first birthday

until they were 10 years old. It was found that the children who

demonstrated a relatively high understanding of print as they

started school at age 5 were more likely to achieve high levels of

reading at age 10. But how was that understanding of print ac-

quired? The researchers found that the parents’ story readings had

a positive influence on the literacy development of their childrenand that listening to stories significantly related to the children’s

understanding of print (Wells, 1986). In addition, the opportuni-

ties for children to watch their parents handle the books and to be

involved in discussions about the story were all valuable aspects of

the story reading.

Shirley Brice Heath (1983) confirmed the value of parents reading

stories for pre-school children and the importance of the inter-active experience. She studied the literacy experiences of pre-

school children in three neighbouring communities in the United

States. The communities each demonstrated different adult prac-

tices, and these led to different outcomes for the children at school.

In one community, the parents read storybooks interactively to

their children. As we would expect, the children in that environ-

ment were successful at reading in school. In another community,

the parents read to their children and helped them with letter

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names, but did not encourage the children to be involved in the

story readings – the readings were not interactive. The children did

well at school initially and managed tasks such as completing

workbook pages, but they were less successful in the later ele-mentary grades. The children in the third community were the least

successful at reading in school. Although the parents valued school

for the benefits it might afford their children, they did not provide

the same learning environment at home and seldom read stories to

their children.

Denny Taylor and Dorothy Strickland (1986) also discuss the bene-

fits of family storybook readings, but take a different approach.They provide numerous excerpts from parent-child read-alouds,

and there are many illustrations that demonstrate the intensity of

the children’s involvement. The read-alouds from many different

homes demonstrate the learning that takes place beyond the story

itself. The authors show how the children learned a sense of how

stories are constructed, and how that helped them understand

many other stories and create their own. The children also ex-

tended their vocabulary as they interacted with their parents dur-

ing the story readings. They learned not only individual words but

the language patterns contained in stories, and they began to play

with the sounds of language. The story reading experience also re-

inforced the listening skills the children later used to support their

classroom learning.

Although Taylor and Strickland’s book focuses on storybook read-

ings, it also links with a main theme of Reading stories with young

children: the readings can provide the basis for other activities.

Their findings show that stories that are read aloud inspire chil-

dren and parents to create their own books. So the authors suggest

that the children should have a thick pad of plain paper and a box

of crayons or felt pens to make their own response to the stories.

These responses can lead to parents and children working to-

gether to make their own family storybooks. In one example theyreport on a child who extends her interest in cats to create her own

INTRODUCTION

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storybook about them; this exemplifies how children use their ex-

periences to draw and write with feeling (pp75-76). Reading

stories with young children works. Mem Fox (2001) argues pas-

sionately that being read to at home in enjoyable interactions,enables children to become readers. And reporting on the Book-

start project, Wade and Moore (2000) and Collins and Svensson

(2008) noted that young children who share books with an adult at

home achieve well when they go to school. They do so because

they learn from books, they learn about books and they learn

literacy.

Children developing as literacy users

A number of longitudinal studies of individual children add to our

understanding of the importance of reading stories to young chil-

dren. These studies typically follow children in their first five years

of life. In many cases the researchers were studying their own chil-

dren, but because these studies are numerous, we can look objec-

tively at the data they provide. One of the best known studies is that

of Glenda Bissex (1980). Bissex read stories to her son Paul beforehe started to talk; these readings supported Paul to recognise

stories and provide an emergent reading before he turned 3.

Judith Schickedanz (1990) reports on the development of her son

Adam’s writing, indicating that Adam sought repeated readings of

favourite books from about 16 months until the age of 3 years.

After that his preference was for information-rich non-fiction

books. In other studies by parents and grandparents of young chil-dren (Baghban, 1984; Laminack, 1991; Martens, 1996; Whitehead,

2002) there is evidence to suggest that story readings are an im-

portant contributor to a child’s literacy development. Baghban in-

cludes transcripts to show how her daughter Giti developed as a

reader from the age of 30 to 33 months as she returned frequently

to reread texts she already knew.

A few studies have concentrated more exclusively on the inter-actions between parents and children during read-alouds. Jones

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

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(1996) was unusual in that she limited her study to the first two

years of their lives. She noted the physical, mental, and emotional

pleasures of the readings. Spreadbury (1994) and Doake (1988)

followed children for a longer period of time, and both indicatedthat story readings were important in supporting literacy develop-

ment. Doake concluded that ‘children who are read to regularly by

their parents and teachers are being given what they are entitled to

in a society that expects them to become fully literate’ (p48).

In addition, there are two studies (Campbell, 1999; White, 1954/

1984) that specifically record a child’s development in conjunction

with read-alouds. Dorothy White, a librarian, shared a wide varietyof books with her daughter Carol between the ages of 2 and 5.

White’s study presents a diary of those shared readings and

demonstrates the enormous enjoyment that came from the

readings and the influence of the books on Carol’s language and

play. In Literacy from home to school: reading with Alice (Campbell,

1999), I report on how my granddaughter Alice listened to stories

read to her daily, including many repeated readings of favourite

books. My study includes transcripts of Alice’s involvement in the

story readings and shows her progress as a reader from birth to 5

years of age. She started to make a verbal contribution to the read-

ing of a short book when she was almost 2. Then she extended

those contributions with other books until she memorised whole

stories. That memorisation enabled her to begin to see links with

the print, and at 3 years 9 months, she made known that attention

to print when sharingZoo Animals(Butterfield, 1995):

Alice: Look there’s andand zoo.

Grandfather: Yes, that says andand that word is zoo. It’s a book

about zoo animals, isn’t it?

Alice: Mmh, I like the hippo best.

Grandfather: That hippo gets all muddy, doesn’t it?

(Campbell, 1999, p86)

INTRODUCTION

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Alice’s recognition of some print enabled her to begin to read from

previously shared books. All these events contributed to her will-

ingness to read short unfamiliar books by the time she was 5 years

old. Reading stories with adults, some of them many times over,was key to supporting that development. And Whitehead (2002)

used her observations of her grandson Dylan during his first three

years of engagement with picture books to demonstrate that boys

too enjoy and learn from storybooks. Nevertheless in primary

classrooms, it can be important for teachers to ensure that plenty

of the books read to the children provide role models for the boys

(Zambo, 2007).

Reading stories in school

Do story readings work in a similarly effective way in school? The

study of story readings in school by Feitelson, Kita, and Goldstein

(1986) is frequently cited. The authors followed two teachers who

were working with first-grade classes as they read to the children

for 20 minutes at the end of the school day. One of the teachers be-

lieved that the reading consumed too much time, so she stoppedthe daily readings. When given reading tests at the end of the

study, the children in the class that continued with read-alouds

performed measurably better.

Smith and Elley (1994) briefly review the outcomes of some of the

research dealing with story readings, including some earlier work

by Elley (1989) that demonstrates vocabulary gains among 8 and 9

year-old children from stories that were read to them. They didbetter still when the teacher explained or illustrated the target

words. Morrow (1992) notes literacy gains among children from

minority backgrounds when a literature-based program was

developed with second year children in the USA. An important

part of the programme was the daily reading of stories and the

activities developed from them.

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

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Learning from story readings

It is difficult to isolate the literacy gains that accrue from story

readings, but the activity does appear to provide many benefits for

young children. Marriott (1995) asserts boldly that ‘it is almostimpossible to overemphasise the value of this activity for children

of any age or reading level’ (p65).

Story readings provide the basis for children to learn about

literacy, to become readers and writers, to learn through literacy

and to want to read in the future (Sloan, 1991). At the same time,

we are reminded by writers such as Money (1987) that teachers

should ensure that the child’s response to and enjoyment of thestory or poem remains paramount.

Children arrive at pre-school or primary school with a wide range

of differing experiences of books. Some have had the joy of hearing

hundreds of stories read to and with them. And because a story is

often read aloud more than once, these children may have ex-

perienced thousands of story readings. If the teacher continues

with readings and repeat readings of a story, it gives the children alink between home and school. They can extend and develop their

literacy learning at once because they are in the familiar territory

of narrative, with its interesting characters, stimulating events and

thought-provoking outcomes.

Children who have not been read to at home, benefit from having

frequent and regular story readings in their classroom. They need

to explore the delights of storybooks supported by adults who readto them and discuss aspects of the stories. As Moustafa (1997)

maintained:

The primary literacy education task of pre-school and early school

years is not teaching children letter-sound correspondences but read-

ing to them. Reading to children in school should be a daily activity, as

important a part of a child’s class schedule as math and lunch. If a child

is experiencing difficulty in learning to read, we should not ask if he or

she knows the sounds of letters but if he or she has been read to

extensively. (p78-79)

INTRODUCTION

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This affirms Well’s view (1986). He notes in his case study of Rosie,

a child who apparently had never been read to before starting

school, that she needed a personal introduction to literacy

through stories (p159). One-on-one story readings actively involvechildren in the reading. Many teachers, especially when they have

adult helpers in the classroom, can provide one-to-one story read-

ings on a regular basis in addition to class readings. Frequently,

during these one-to-one readings, other children will place them-

selves close enough to listen in; such is the power and enjoyment

of stories.

How does literacy develop through reading stories? First, childrenlearn about literacy because they have an adult providing a model

of reading. The story reading provides an understanding at a

simple level of how print functions and how it is used (Strickland

and Morrow, 1989). As children watch adults use books to read

aloud, they quickly become aware of and knowledgeable about

left-to-right and front-to-back directionality. In the classroom

Holdaway (1979) suggests that the teacher might use Big Books for

some story readings so all the children can see the print and follow

that process of reading.

But children learn far more from story readings than how to use a

book (Butler, 1998). Children learn about the structure of stories –

the beginning, the middle, and the end. Furthermore, as Dombey

(1988) indicates, children learn new words, new sentences and

new discourse patterns. When the children have the opportunity

to explore in writing the stories that have been read aloud with

them, that learning is extended. Fox (1993) indicates how litera-

ture influences children’s own storytelling. Her record of young

children’s storytelling demonstrates how the stories children have

heard feed into their own stories.

Children also develop knowledge and understanding of letters and

letter-sound relationships (Campbell, 2004). Moustafa (1997)

argues that the starting point for young children is hearing stories

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rather than learning letters, but the children do nevertheless learn

about letters from stories. For example, it is not hard to imagine

the learning about letters and sounds that might follow rereadings

of Sniff-Snuff-Snap! (Dodd, 1995), in which the consonant blendsn is so prominent. This learning would occur even when the em-

phasis is on the enjoyment of this delightful story.

In Teale’s (1984) analysis of the benefits that accrue from stories

read aloud, he includes the development of positive attitudes to-

ward reading. In part, these attitudes originate from the shared

enjoyment of the story. But they also come from the way in which

stories can provide tales about lives and events outside the child’sown experience (Trelease, 1995). Story readings can encourage

children’s positive attitudes toward books because they offer the

chance to learn about a wider world.

Organisation of this book

In order to look more closely at story readings, Chapter 2 explores

the activity in a reception classroom. It is not always possible to

watch, or listen to, a reading of a story in a classroom, but this

chapter enables us to enter the classroom and observe what takes

place. It includes transcript excerpts from the teacher reading the

story and the children’s comments and questions. We also see how

a number of activities develop from this lively, enjoyable reading.

Preparing for a story reading is examined in Chapter 3. A success-

ful story reading will depend on several things: selecting an appro-

priate book to read, preparing carefully for the story reading, per-

forming the reading enthusiastically and ensuring that the chil-

dren take part.

Chapter 4 considers the importance of narrative as a way of think-

ing. It suggests that reading stories encourages children to think in

a particular way so as to construct a sense of reality. Story also en-

hances children’s literacy skills, supports their cultural heritage

and aids their personal development. To achieve these benefits,

children must be exposed to books of quality. The chapter explores

INTRODUCTION

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the use of predictable storybooks with repetition, rhyme and

rhythm and highlights the importance of poetry and non-fiction

texts.

Chapter 5 notes how the story reading can support detailed learn-

ing about letter and word print features such as the alphabet,

phonics and spelling. The children’s involvement with stories and

the writing that follows creates numerous opportunities to think

about graphophonic connections. The stories also provide a start-

ing point for the teacher to create a word wall that aids the chil-

dren’s learning.

The children’s interest in the story reading frequently leads them

into other activities that link to the story. Chapter 6 discusses how

role playing, drawing and writing, making books, creating arts and

crafts, making and using puppets and singing songs and rhymes

can all be part of the children’s response. Sometimes it is the

teacher who encourages the children in that direction; on other

occasions it is the children who immediately want to follow the

reading in a particular way.

When the teacher reads a story from a Big Book, the activity is

transformed. All the children can see the print, so the teacher can

emphasise print features. Shared reading with Big Books is the

subject of Chapter 7, along with sustained silent reading, indivi-

dual reading, buddy reading, paired reading, guided reading and

literature circles.

Similarly the stories, poems and rhymes that have been read aloud

are a good starting point for shared writing. Chapter 8 considers

how the teacher demonstrates writing and the discussions that

take place during this activity. Other linked activities such as inter-

active writing, guided writing and individual writing are explored.

The stories that are read aloud create opportunities for many dif-

ferent activities to take place. They also lead into other curriculum

areas such as mathematics, science and social studies. Often the

children inquire about the facts that are contained within the

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stories. At other times the teacher plans to use the story as a start-

ing point for a study in another curriculum area. Chapter 9

examines how stories can provide the stimulus for exploring a

variety of issues.

The short concluding chapter reminds us that a great deal of

learning flows from stories that are read aloud. Teachers should

ensure that a variety of possibilities exist for children to follow a

well-read story and to find enjoyment in the process.

The opportunities for developing the curriculum from story read-

ings are endless. At the same time, teachers should remember that

the main objective is to provide interesting books for the children,

that will engage their thinking and emotions. The activities that

are developed from the story must not dampen the children’s en-

thusiasm for stories and reading. And no story should be overused

to the point that children lose their enthusiasm for it. In Powell

and Hornsby’s (1998) words:

Since all text is language, all texts have numerous possibilities for high-

lighting different aspects of language.There is no need to milk a book

dry of skills and bore your students in the process; it is better to use the

skills possibilities available in a variety of literature and other authentic

texts. (p84)

The secret of success with reading stories rests with the sensitivity

of the adult at home and, subsequently, the professional approach

of the teacher. With the right balance, reading stories can help chil-

dren improve their learning skills and develop a love of readingthat will last a lifetime. The following chapters illustrate how this

works.

INTRODUCTION

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2Reading stories interactively

In a reception classroom

Another busy day in a classroom of 30 5-year-old children in

London was drawing to a close. The teacher gathered the

children around her and prepared to read a story.

Teacher: What do you think this book is about?Ben: A caterpillar.

David: It’s got lots of hairs.

Matthew: And green eyes.

Sophie: Why is it wearing shoes?

Teacher: They do look like shoes, but they are the

caterpillar’s feet. It’s a story about a very hungry

caterpillar, and the author is Eric Carle.

Ben: Yeah, those letters tell us.

The Very Hungry Caterpillar (Carle, 1969) has been and continues

to be enjoyed by millions of children across the world. The appeal-

ing nature of the main character, the rhythm and repetition of the

text and the trail of holes left by the caterpillar through the pagesall add to the attraction.

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Before the teacher began reading to the 5-year-olds, she intro-

duced the book. She encouraged the children to make comments

about the front cover and the caterpillar. She told them the

author’s name. One child indicated where the teacher got thisinformation from. The reading was already demonstrating what

Strickland and Morrow (1989) describe as a ‘co-operative con-

struction of meaning between the adult and child’ (p323). The

literacy event was interactive, and the children were encouraged

to contribute comments and questions.

The children’s involvement was maintained as the teacher started

to read the first page:

Amy: I can see the moon.

Denise: It’s smiling.

Teacher: It does look like it’s smiling.

In the light of the moon

a little egg lay on a leaf.

Sally: I can see it; it’s white.

Teacher: It is, isn’t it?

When the teacher reached the pages where the caterpillar eats a

different fruit on each day from Monday to Friday, there was great

excitement:

Danny: There are lots of holes in the book.

John: And fruit.

Teacher: Yes, there are different fruits with holes. I wonder

why there are holes in the fruit?

Ben: That’s where the caterpillar eats.

John: He nibbles holes.

Matthew: I like fruit.

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Stephanie: So do I.

Teresa: I like strawberries.

Teacher: Yes, I thought you would, and so did the veryhungry caterpillar.

On Monday

he ate through

one apple.

But he was still

hungry.

The holes in the book intrigue children. The five different fruits

also elicit comments, as we see when the teacher encouraged the

children to take part in the story reading by accepting and res-

ponding to their observations. The teacher used their comments

to lead back into the reading of the story in a natural manner. Her

actions contributed to the children’s literacy learning and were an

important part of the management of the class.

As the teacher continued with the story, the children extracted fine

detail from the illustrations. For example, when they reached

Thursday, one child commented on the strawberries:

Jamie: Four strawberries-one’s upside down.

Teacher: There are four strawberries.

On Thursday

he ate throughfour strawberries

When a child makes a remark of this nature, it encourages others

in the class to look carefully at the pictures and eventually at the

print. (Newer editions of this book have each of the strawberries in

a vertical position!)

The children also made links from the story to their own feelings.

As the teacher repeated the refrain, Ben expressed his own hunger.

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Teacher: but he was still

hungry.

Ben: I’m hungry. Is it home time?

Teacher: Nearly; you’ll soon be able to have a snack.

The two-page spread in the book for Saturday would add to Ben’s

hunger, and other children also commented on the illustration of

the food the caterpillar consumed on Saturday:

John: Look at all that food.

Danny: There’s a lollipop. I like lollipops.The teacher responded by reading the corresponding text and

asked why the caterpillar ended up with a stomach-ache.

Ben: He had too much food.

Jamie: I like all that food

Amy: He was greedy.

Teacher: That’s right; he ate too much. But what else gave it

a stomach-ache?

Sophie: Real caterpillars eat leaves.

Teacher: Yes, they do, Sophie. The caterpillar ate the wrong

food and it gave him a stomach-ache.

Joanne: He needs medicine.

Ben: My mum gives me stuff when I’m not well.

Teacher: Yes, you have some medicine. Well...

The next day was Sunday again.

The caterpillar ate through

one nice green leaf

Sophie: Now he’ll be better.

Teacher: Yes.

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and after that he felt

much better.

Clearly the children remained very involved with the story. They

related it to events in their own lives. The interaction between the

teacher and the children took more time than the actual reading of

the story. This is often the case, especially when a book is read

aloud for the first time, and particularly in reception or pre-school

classrooms.

As the story reaches its conclusion, the caterpillar builds a cocoon.

This development intrigued the children.

Samuel: It looks like a stone.

Pavi: That’s a funny house.

Teacher: Yes, it’s a cocoon. And after he pushed his way out

of the cocoon...

he was a beautiful butterfly!

Danny: That’s pretty.

Teresa: I saw a butterfly in my garden.

Teacher: So you saw a beautiful butterfly in your garden?

Teresa: Yes, but it wasn’t all those colours. It was nearly all

white.

Teacher: Was it? I wonder what it looked like when it was a

caterpillar.

Other children wanted to talk about seeing white butterflies and

green caterpillars. As they left the classroom, they were still talking

about the story, caterpillars and butterflies, and food to be eaten.

They had enjoyed the story. They contributed to the reading by

asking questions, making comments and relating the story to their

own experiences and they remained excited about the story.

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This account demonstrates the benefits of reading stories and

shows why teachers of young children use this literacy activity so

often. Many teachers read a story at the beginning of the day so

they can capitalise on the children’s excitement by providing im-mediate opportunities for them to explore the story in various

ways. In this example, the teacher chose to read the story at the

end of the school day because she knew the children would talk

about it at home and therefore develop their ideas about it before

returning to school.

Repeat readings

The next morning, the teacher reminded the children of the story.

The reading and the children’s subsequent talk and thinking about

the story provided a strong background for the events of the day:

Teacher: Do you remember The Very Hungry Caterpillar?

Jamie: I liked that story.

Ben: He eat [sic] all the wrong food.

Teacher: He did. He ate all the wrong food.

Michael: He’s got a funny face.

Danny: Read it again.

Thus some of the children indicated their positive feelings toward

the story and their recognition of a theme and they requested

another reading. The teacher was expecting this response and had

made preparations for another reading and for other activities

linked to the story.

During the repeat reading, the interactions expanded. The rhythm

and repetition that are part of this story encouraged the children

to take part in the reading. The teacher began the refrain and

paused, and this prompted the children to join in:

Teacher: On Mondayhe ate through

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one apple.

But[with emphasis and pausing for the

children]

Children: he was still

hungry.

Matthew: He eats lots of food.

Teacher: He does. Now,

On Tuesday

By the time the teacher reached the Friday page, all the childrenwere anticipating the refrain and joining in and doing so earlier,

starting with but.

The children were also excited to give their opinions about the

caterpillar and the foods that he ate on Saturday.

Danny: He got a bellyache.

Anna: He eats the wrong food.

Ben: He eat [sic] people’s food.

Amy: He was greedy. (A repeat of her comment from the

previous day, now given with some emphasis.)

Matthew: He should have just eaten leaves.

Heath (1982, 1983) argues that as children participate in inter-

active story readings, they learn not only how to take meaningfrom books but how to talk about it. The children are able to pro-

vide ‘what-explanations,’ such as a description of what the topic is

about. This provides the basis for children to provide explanations

and affective commentaries. These may be requirements for the

upper years of school as Heath suggests, but can also occur with

younger children. In this example, Amy provided a reason why the

caterpillar got stomach-ache, and Matthew suggested how the

caterpillar could have avoided the problem. The interactive nature

of the story reading supports and encourages such thinking.

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The children remained very interested in the cocoon. They wanted

to talk about the cocoon and to relate that to their own home and

other types of houses.

Joanne: He made a special house for himself.

Matthew: Yeah, a cocoon.

Sally: I live in a house.

Lewis: I live in a flat.

Sophie: My rabbit lives in a hutch.

Teacher: Well done. People and animals live in differenttypes of homes, and the caterpillar made his own

house-a cocoon.

The teacher made it clear that she welcomed comments during

the story reading, thus encouraging a pattern of interactive read-

ings for the future. She confirmed the children’s comments about

the different types of houses that people and animals inhabit, and

she reminded them that the caterpillar built his own house. Shealso repeated the name of that house: a cocoon.

This reading of a story gave the children the opportunity to behave

like readers. And their memorisation of parts of the story helped

them in the days and months ahead when they looked through the

book on their own and started to read the print. In these ways, the

story reading provided a foundation for literacy learning. After

completing the story, the teacher asked the children what theyliked about it. She prompted the class to reflect on the story and

their feelings toward it. There were many responses:

Danny: I liked it when he made holes in the fruit. He

crawled in and out.

Ben: I liked the bit where he eat [sic] all the wrong food

and gave him a tummy-ache.

Joanne: It tells us all about the butterfly.

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These responses – along with the children’s comments during the

repeat reading, their contributions to the reading, and their excite-

ment about the story at the start of the day – all suggest that they

had benefited from the two readings. And that they would beinterested in following the story with other activities.

Activities following the story reading

During the next few days, the children revisited and explored the

story in a number of ways. The teacher suggested some of the

activities and had already prepared materials for constructing

puppets. Other ideas came from the children.

Stick puppets

The children made caterpillars out of dough, clay, cloth or card-

board. The teacher helped the children construct caterpillar stick

puppets, which generated interest in creating stick puppets of

other creatures or characters. She encouraged the children to use

the puppets throughout the day as she reread parts of the story.

Children painted large pictures of chocolate cake, ice cream cones

and the rest of the inappropriate food the caterpillar ate on Satur-

day. The teacher added large printed labels for each of these foods.

Each time the teacher recited that part of the story and the chil-

dren joined in, the children moved the puppets along the posters,

crawling from one food to another.

What did this mean for the children’s incidental learning? They

memorised another part of the story, recalled the sequence of

foods eaten on the Saturday, matched the book illustrations and

student paintings to the story as it was recited, noted the teacher’s

large printed words under each picture, and worked collabora-

tively. Importantly they also had great fun.

Further readings

In addition to encouraging the children to use their puppets be-side the posters, the teacher read the complete story many times

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because the children so enjoyed hearing it and often requested it.

These further readings enabled the children to gain ownership of

the story. They grew confident in their knowledge of it, became

familiar with the main character, and could recall some of the keyphrases for themselves. A few of them could recite much of the

story on their own.

The frequent repeat readings of the book took place quite

naturally within the classroom. As Teale and Sulzby (1989) argue,

‘Repeated readings by the teacher are especially important’ (p7).

These replicate the valuable repeat readings that many children

enjoy at home (Campbell, 1999) and encourage the children toread the book for themselves. Children enjoy having the stories re-

peated because it enables them to gain ownership of the words

and meanings of the book. As Morrow (1988) notes, repeat read-

ings lead the children to focus on print as well as story structure.

As the children begin to memorise many of the book’s words, they

can recall some of the story when they look at each page. They can

take part in the reading by offering some words, phrases and sen-

tences as the adult reads aloud. In this way, they are able to behave

like readers.

Singing rhymes

As we listen to young children engaged in various activities

throughout the day, we can hear echoes of the story from the story

reading. In this classroom the children often repeated key phrases

such as ‘but he was still hungry,’ as they drew and painted. Theirinvolvement with the story also extended into other linked

rhymes, verses or songs.

To continue the shared book experience, the teacher used a song

poster with large print as the basis for another literacy activity. As

Holdaway (1979) notes, ‘Some of [the] instructional reading

material can be their songs – and poems’ (p66). The teacher had

prepared a poster with the words to a simple song that linkedclosely to The Very Hungry Caterpillar. In the song, the caterpillar

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is eating, and there is a sequence of eggs, caterpillar, pupa or

cocoon, and butterfly – then back to eggs. The teacher followed the

sequence with the children as she sang with them and pointed to

the words on the poster:

I went to the cabbages one day.

What do you think I saw?

Eggs in a cluster, yellow as a duster.

What could it all be for?

I went to the cabbages one day.

What do you think I saw?

Caterpillar crawling, caterpillar munching.

What could it all be for?

I went to the cabbages one day.

What do you think I saw?

I saw a super duper pupa.

What could it all be for?

I went to the cabbages one day.What do you think I saw?

I saw a butterfly flutter by.

What could it all be for?

I went to the cabbages one day.

What do you think I saw?

Eggs in a cluster, yellow as a duster.

What could it all be for?As we expect from such events, the children soon picked up the

words of the song. The first, second, and fourth lines are repeated

in each verse, and the third line shows the life cycle of the butterfly,

which the children had followed in Eric Carle’s story. Within a few

repeats of the song, the children were joining in confidently and

enthusiastically. Songs such as this become a valuable resource for

teachers, and a collection of verses and songs that complementstory readings can be developed over time. The teacher also

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printed a short verse as a large poster. In this kindergarten class-

room she used it with the children as a poem to be recited:

‘Who’s that tickling my back?’

said the wall.

‘Me,’ said a caterpillar,

‘I’m learning to crawl.’

It became easy for the teacher to involve small groups of children

to act out the words. With some children as the wall, others as the

caterpillar, and groups to recite the verse, the children engaged

again with the antics of a caterpillar. They also made connections

between the words they recited and the print on the poster. By this

time the printed word caterpillarhad been seen, spoken and en-

joyed in many different contexts. Many children were starting to

recognise the word.

Drawing and writing

In addition to making the two posters, the teacher also created a

small word wall. This ensured that some of the words from thestory were readily available for the children in the classroom. The

word wall was especially useful for the children who began to draw

and write. Others needed to make less reference to the word wall

because they were confident about taking risks with words; a risk

taking that the teacher encouraged. These children produced their

writing with their own invented spellings based on the sounds

they heard in each word as they wrote.

Because of the nature of the story, many of the children produced

drawings or collages of the caterpillar (see Figure 1). Additionally,

some children included what the caterpillar ate. Others extended

that line of thinking and drew pictures of different animals and

what they liked to eat. Two of the children’s drawings demonstrate

this (see Figures 2 and 3).

Their writing also indicates their varying levels of understandingabout print. In the example in Figure 2, the child produced four

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READING STORIES INTERACTIVELY

Figure 1: Sample Caterpillar Collage

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READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 2: A Giraffe Eats Leaves

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READING STORIES INTERACTIVELY

Figure 3: Crab Eats Fish

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words:A graff ates leves(A giraffe eats leaves). One of the words is

written conventionally, and the other three are close enough

approximations to enable the reader to make sense of the child’s

effort. In particular,graffand levesdemonstrate a good use of thegraphophonic features and the child’s growing knowledge of letters

and sounds. Furthermore, each of the words appears within a

space. The spacing can be contrasted with the example in Figure 3,

where the writing of CABET FS(Crab eats fish) is more difficult to

decipher, although the picture clue helps.

In Figure 3, the final word is separated from the other two, showing

that the child, not quite 5 years old, had some knowledge of lettersand sounds and was able to put that knowledge to good use while

writing. Other children stayed more firmly with the story they had

heard, writing it in their own words, often greatly abbreviated. For

instance, as we see in Figure 4, Carly wrote only one sentence and

she obviously used the word wall; each word is written conven-

tionally.

Other children retold the story in their own words or wrote aboutsome part of it. A few children let their imagination extend their

view of the story. Richard linked the story to his other interests,

writing about railways and roads (see Figure 5).

The teacher extended the link from the story reading to the chil-

dren’s writing by developing a class book. That book, titled Our

Caterpillar Stories (see Figure 6), was placed in the classroom

library alongside The Very Hungry Caterpillar. In each of theseways, the children remained involved with the story they had en-

joyed.

Focus on the life cycle (science)

The Very Hungry Caterpillaris an ingenious book in several ways.

In addition to providing a captivating story (Trelease, 1995), it

teaches children about the days of the week and their sequence

and it encourages them to think about the numbers 1 to 5. In addi-

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READING STORIES INTERACTIVELY

Figure 4: Carly’s Story

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READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 5: Richard’s Story

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READING STORIES INTERACTIVELY

Figure 6: Cover of Our Caterpillar Stories

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tion, it describes the life cycle of the butterfly, which the children

learn from the frequent rereading.

The song also added to the children’s scientific knowledge. As the

song was sung in the classroom for the second time, one child re-

marked, ‘This song can go on forever.’ A few of the children, sup-

ported by the teacher, folded a sheet of paper into four sections

and drew pictures of the cycle, showing eggs, caterpillar, cocoon,

and butterfly. That led the children to re-create the science se-

quence and follow a simple story structure of beginning, middle

and end.

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 7: Adrian’s Picture

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Counting and measuring (mathematics)

Although the text encouraged the children to count from 1 to 5

with each of the weekday pages, the teacher used the children’s

interest in the main character to measure, compare, and count be-yond 5. For instance, the children took great delight in drawing

pictures of the caterpillars. They liked to follow the example set by

Eric Carle and give them bold facial features. Adrian’s picture of

the caterpillar (see Figure 7) seemed to capture the main character

particularly well.

As the children drew caterpillars, the class discussed their various

lengths. Questions such as ‘How long is your caterpillar?’ and ‘Whohas got the longest caterpillar?’ led the children to count with

cubes and compare the lengths with others. Adam used his picture

to measure the length of the caterpillar. He wrote that ‘my cater-

pillar si [is] 14 squares long’. To make that calculation, he placed 14

maths cubes beside his picture and counted them. His coloured

picture accurately reflects the number and colours of the 14

squares he used. Throughout this process, the children remained

excited about their drawings and engaged incidentally in mathe-

matical thinking.

It takes work to ensure that a story reading is successful. As the

reception example shows, the teacher has to prepare for the story

reading. Even though most teachers are likely to know The Very

Hungry Caterpillar it is nevertheless worth spending time con-

sidering the story reading. We look at this in the next chapter.

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3Reading stories in the classroom:

getting started

eading stories works. And they work even better if the

teacher has given some thought to the selection of the

book to be read and has prepared for the reading. How will

the book be read? Reading the book is a performance and the

teacher needs to consider and possibly practice the performance

before reading to the children. With the youngest primary school

children and pre-schoolers, it is important that the children take

part.

Selecting a book to read

This text mentions a small number of children’s books. But thisbarely scratches the surface; there are so many attractive and

worthwhile books for reading to children. We can never know for

sure which books will especially appeal to any one child. For

instance, between the age of 1 and 3, Louie constantly returned to

a favourite text Fix-It Duck(Alborough, 2001). The readings of this

picture book changed over the years. Louie listened to the book

being read when he was 1 year old and inserted the rhyming words

during his second year. By 3 he knew and had memorised large

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chunks of the book. He was attracted to the characters of Duck,

Sheep, Goat and Frog and was familiar with every minute detail of

the illustrations. At times other books became more important to

him, such as The Gruffalo (Donaldson, 1999), ‘Emergency!’ (Mayo,2002) and many others. But, for whatever reason, Fix-It Duckand

other Duck books were requested by him at intervals throughout

his development in using literacy.

As we see in the next chapter, repetition, rhyme and rhythm are

among the key elements that help us to select a particularly suit-

able book for young children. These attributes are evident in Fix-It

Duck and may have contributed to Louie’s enjoyment. At othertimes it might be particular happenings in the home, classroom or

wider community, or previous experience, that suggest a book to

be read. Whatever is the case, the books that are selected have to

be good.

Other reasons may prevail when we read a story or chapter book

to older primary school children. Again there are many great

books waiting to be read. For instance, I have read Kensuke’s King-dom (Morpurgo, 1999) to a class of Year 5 children over a two week

period. The children were captivated by the story, composed notes

that might have been written by Michael and Kensouke,

developed a conversation between the two characters – and, inci-

dentally, rapidly conquered speech marks – and found out about

geographical and historical aspects of the story. And beyond the

picture books, there are many chapter books, waiting to be read.

Preparing for a story reading

Because so many books are available, busy teachers may be

tempted to pick one up at the last minute to read aloud to the

class. However, experience of reading aloud quickly demonstrates

that adequate preparation is needed. Wade (1990) advocates that

‘stories need to be introduced, presented, recommended, talked

over and savoured together’ (p31). This suggests that teachers

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need to prepare for a story reading just like other aspects of the

curriculum.

Graham and Kelly (1997) provide a story reading checklist under

four main headings: select, plan, practice, and deliver. For their

plan section, Graham and Kelly identify six areas to consider:

resources that might be needed

how much is to be read

how the book will be introduced

points the teacher might raise for discussion how to conclude the session, and

what might be used if time is available at the end of the

read-aloud. (p63)

These issues need not take up much of the teacher’s time. But the

list does indicate that teachers will need to be well prepared for the

story reading.

Trelease (1995) also comments on preparation for story reading,

making the point that teachers need to preview the book by read-

ing it to themselves beforehand. This ensures that they know the

book and that it is appropriate for the children. Trelease suggests

choosing a book that matches the intellectual, social and emo-

tional level of the audience. This is not easy, but teachers will be

aware of the books the children enjoy and will become increas-

ingly competent at making the link between text and audience.

Gervase Phinn (2000) pays attention to choosing books for chil-

dren that will be read in the classroom. He shows how many

worthwhile texts are available, in his wide selection of stories,

poetry and non-fiction. Such lists are helpful, although teachers

still need to preview the book for themselves.

The preview ensures that the adult can read the book with an

awareness of the flow of the text. Even experienced teachers find

READING STORIES IN THE CLASSROOM: GETTING STARTED

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that for a story reading to be successful, a practice read is helpful –

even when the teacher has already read the book to another class.

The practice serves as a reminder of the precise words, the page

turning, particular key phrases and the phrases to emphasise. Astory reading that is rehearsed is likely to be a worthwhile perfor-

mance that captures the children’s interest. Authors of picture

books (such as Julia Donaldson of The Gruffalo) report that they

read aloud their completed book to make sure that the flow feels

right (Lane, 2008). If the author feels the need to do this, so should

the story reader.

Reading as a performance

In the real classroom, it may be difficult to get the children settled

for a story. Mood is important, and the teacher should try to settle

the children without making authoritarian requests for attention.

Equally, avoid any threat that there will be no story if the children

make too much noise. The story reading is too important to be

lost. Neuman (1998) suggests starting with a song, a finger play or

a brief chant to signal the time for a story reading. Some teachersuse music to set the mood and tone. Once story readings are esta-

blished as an enjoyable and exciting event in the day, the children

are likely to settle down quickly. Their enjoyment is even more

assured when children can sense the teacher’s enthusiasm for

books. Many teachers get the children’s attention simply by saying

they have another exciting book to read. Then, as Mem Fox (2001)

puts it, the voicing of the first line ‘should be sensational. The aim

is to grab our audience immediately and never let them go’ (p48).

Trelease (1995) has further useful suggestions for guaranteeing the

quality of the activity: teachers should ensure that all the children

can see the pictures easily, sitting with their head just above the

children’s so their voice will carry to all the children, using plenty

of expression and adjusting their pace of reading to fit the story.

Trelease particularly urges teachers to avoid reading too quickly,which he considers to be the commonest mistake. Reading at the

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right pace, pausing for effect, and appropriate emphasis are all

likely to captivate the audience and extend their interest in story

and literacy. Mem Fox (2001) lists seven things to do with the voice.

Six are contrasts ‘loud and soft, fast and slow and high and low’(p42) and the seventh is pausing. So both Trelease and Fox regard

pausing as important – and it is important for the children who

listen. Mem Fox provides examples from her own books, where the

contrasts of voice are made obvious and link directly to the words

being read – and she has a web page where those contrasts are

demonstrated: www.memfox.net. Reading aloud to children re-

quires a performance that can enhance the words and content of

the story.

Ensuring that the children are involved

The interactive aspect of the story reading has many benefits,

especially for younger children. We saw how the reading in the

reception classroom of The Very Hungry Caterpillar elicited com-

ments from the children about the story and illustrations:

John: He nibbles holes.

Amy: I can see the moon.

They also related the text to their own experiences:

Matthew: I like strawberries.

And they demonstrated their knowledge:

Sophie: Real caterpillars eat leaves.

Engaging in talk of this kind enables children to understand the

story, extract meanings and clarify their own thinking. The chil-

dren become ‘partners in the telling’ (Dombey, 1988, p75) even

when they cannot yet read the print and have not seen the book

before.

Teachers should not be unnerved by the children’s comments and

questions during the reading. The pupils’ curiosity and interest is

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fostered when the teacher answers their questions and responds

to their comments. Dombey (1988) suggests that the teacher even

invite the children to join in the reading as active participants. The

reception teacher did this very effectively:

Teacher: I wonder why there are holes in the fruit?

Then later:

Teacher: What else gave it [the caterpillar] a stomach-ache?

Her questions encouraged the children to participate, and their

comments demonstrated that they had become used to contri-

buting.

Additionally, the teacher can encourage children to participate in

the actual reading of the text, especially the parts where phrases

are repeated:

Teacher: On Monday

he ate through

one apple.But [with emphasis and pausing for the children]

Children: he was still

hungry.

Inviting the children into the story reading to speak some of the

text encourages them to behave like readers and provides a foun-

dation for their involvement with the book.

After the children have commented and asked questions, the

teacher returns to focus on the book and resumes reading. This is

not easy. It is done by changing the emphasis in the voice, pausing

and using signals for the children, such as ‘On the next page’ or

‘Now’. Most teachers of young children can perfect this skill so that

the story reading flows from reading to active participation and

back to reading.

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The contribution of the teacher is not only verbal. Facial expres-

sions can encourage children to engage or they can suggest a con-

tinuation of the story. A finger placed on the lips may indicate a

return to the story. These non-verbal behaviours are designed toencourage the children’s participation in the story reading, to

signal a reading from the book and, in some circ*mstances, to re-

mind one or more children of the behaviour which is appropriate.

After the reading, the children can be involved by taking part in a

class discussion. As Trelease (1995) notes, this gives the children

time for their thoughts, hopes, fears and discoveries to surface. He

reminds us that such discussions should not be turned into a quizor an attempt to pry story interpretations from the children.

Rather, talking about the book helps them to create meanings

(McGee, 1995). The discussion can also be the springboard that

takes the children from the story into other activities.

This glimpse inside a reception classroom offers an indication of

how teachers might work with young children during a story read-

ing, although story reading will vary according to the age of chil-dren. In pre-school, the dialogue between the teacher and chil-

dren is often longer and less focused than with older children, and

the teacher may need to work harder to respond to their com-

ments and use them to return to the reading. Older children may

be more willing to listen to the entire story, saving their comments

until the end. And their interest in following up aspects of the story

in pictures and writing will be more extensive.

Routman (1991) identifies reading stories in the classroom as ‘the

single most influential factor in young children’s success in learn-

ing to read’ (p32). The interactive nature of story readings provides

major support for the children’s literacy learning. Through the use

of questions and statements from both adult and child, each pas-

sage is clarified and integrated with other parts of the story. Young

children can anticipate, or predict, upcoming story events through

the knowledge they acquire. This experience helps them develop

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strategies for making inferences and hypotheses both for the book

being read and for other written language. The reception children

enjoyed the reading of The Very Hungry Caterpillar, became in-

volved in the story, participated in a related discussion and usedthe meanings and the words to extend their excitement into other

aspects of learning.

Some teachers may feel uncomfortable about devoting a great

deal of time to story reading (Routman, 1991). The children and

teacher so enjoy the activity that it may not seem like hard enough

work. But the children’s enjoyment becomes the basis for learning

about stories and reading, learning to read, learning throughliteracy, and wanting to read (Short, 1999). Because of these

numerous benefits, story readings should take place every day –

and even more frequently for the youngest children in schools.

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4The importance of narrative

and quality books

Narrative and story are central features in the early years of

education (Whitehead, 1987). A particular benefit of story

is that it provides a way of organising thinking about ex-

periences and making them meaningful. Bruner (1968) argues

that there are two modes of thought, ‘a good story and a well-

formed argument’ (p99). These provide different ways of viewing

reality. Although both are important, this book focuses on narra-

tive.

As children ‘transact’ or interact with stories (Rosenblatt, 1978),

they consider the development of the action and begin to become

aware of what the protagonists and antagonists involved in the

action know, think or feel. These transactions enable children to

build what Langer (1995) refers to as an envisionment; that is, the

understanding they have about the text. As ideas unfold and new

ideas come to mind, this envisionment, or understanding, is sub-

ect to change. During a reading the story is a basis for encouraging

thinking as the children interact with the adult. For example, we

saw in Chapter 2 how, as the children heard multiple readings of

The Very Hungry Caterpillar and engaged in activities related tothe story, they extended their thinking and developed their ideas.

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Whitehead (1997) reminds us that pleasure is ‘the first and all-per-

vasive theme in the world of literature’ (p119). This pleasure is

evident in classrooms where teachers and children share stories,

particularly in classrooms where an initial emphasis on the storyis key. Following the story with related activities, as shown in

Chapter 2, can add to the children’s enjoyment. However, we must

remember that such activities must ‘not detract from children’s

enjoyment of good books’ (Lane and Wright, 2007, p674).

When the story gives pleasure, play and learning come naturally

and inevitably, as the children construct meaning about what they

have heard and considered. Dorothy White (1954/1984) offersnumerous examples of how her pre-school daughter Carol used a

story line as the basis for her play at home. For instance, when

Carol was almost 4 years old, Dorothy read her a book titled The

Little Train (Lenski, 1946), in which the key character is Engineer

Small, whose job is to ensure that the train is ready for its journey.

Carol regularly ‘played trains’ after hearing this story: ‘Carol oils

wheels, shovels coal, reads her orders, pulls a whistle-cord and

makes off from the sofa station for the tunnel under the table’

(White, p83). From this play, Carol was able to extend her under-

standing of railways and construct her own meanings onto the

story. Phillips and McNaughton (1990) suggest that children who

have had frequent storybook readings at home learn how to con-

struct meaning from unfamiliar texts.

Whitehead (1987) suggests that there are three main strands to

support the claims that narrative and story benefit young children

– skills, cultural heritage, and personal development. These

strands are interrelated and often all three are apparent at once.

Skills

Children who have a substantial number of encounters with books

at home learn in their first few years how to manipulate and use a

book. In a longitudinal study of story readings with my grand-daughter Alice, I noted that by age 12 months,

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Alice could handle a book by:

picking it up or extracting one from a bookshelf,

orienting the book correctly so it was the right way up,

turning a page when she wanted to look at the next picture,turn the pages from the front towards the back.

(Campbell, 1999, p17)

This competence is typical of many children who have similar

opportunities to explore books: they see demonstrations of read-

ing by adults and are supported by adults as they manipulate

books. In the classroom, the adult demonstrations that occur

naturally as part of reading a story ensure that even children with

little experience of books learn these skills.

Children also learn about the language of print from stories, and

they acquire understanding of the structure of stories – beginning,

middle, and end – as well as understanding about characters, set-

ting and plot. Carol Fox (1993) provides evidence of this learning

in her study of the oral storytelling of five pre-school children.

Transcripts of these retellings demonstrate the children’s learning.

For instance, Fox notes that when Justine was 4 years 1 month old,

she related the following story:

Once upon a time there were two little dicky birds in a tree

and mammy one said ‘Don’t go out there’

but the naughtiest was the little baby one

he went out ‘cos he didn’t listen to his mum

she said ‘There’s wolves out there and foxes and

ugly lions and other sorts of things that willeat the birds and crawling insects and

spiders and witches’

and he flyed out of the nest

and one of the tigers opened his mouth and

gobbled him all up

and the second little baby came to eat him up

and that’s the end of the story. (p85)

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In her detailed analysis of this story, Fox notes that the actions

happen in the past tense and the mother bird speaks in the pre-

sent tense. Although this is a simple story structure, it contains two

actions and causal resolutions, and it was not Justine’s richestnarrative. This example of storytelling and others like it demon-

strate a wealth of learning about language.

Children can extend their understanding of language when they

have the opportunity to write about aspects of the stories they’ve

heard an adult read aloud or rewrite the stories in their own words.

Additionally, children learn about letters and letter-sound

relationships from stories (see Chapter 4). However when we lookat the story writing of 5-year-old Dylan (Figure 8) we see how

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 8: Arechy Bird

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much he too has learned about story structure, the use of two

main characters and the resolution to the story. And we also see

the extent to which, given the opportunity to write freely, he tries

to use his knowledge of letters and sounds to create the words thathe wants to include.

Dylan was able to write numerous words conventionally but

others are clearly developmental or invented spellings. He

attempted a number of different ways to write ‘bird’ without quite

getting it right by the end of the story, and his attempts at ‘up’ were

illuminating. Each invented spelling enables us to detect the way

in which the written word might have been created from his know-ledge of letter and sound.

Cultural heritage

Children learn about a wider world from narrative, especially

through the oral tradition of nursery rhymes, singing games and

chants (Opie and Opie, 1959), as well as the folk tales and fairy tales

that are handed from one generation to another. Then there is the

‘received’ literature (Whitehead, 1987), which includes books that

are read in successive generations and serve as a link to our past.

When children engage with the narrative of nursery rhymes, they

enjoy the rhythm and rhyme. They learn about story structure and

acquire understanding of onset and rime, which teachers can

capitalise on later. And nursery rhymes often suggest links with

the past:

Ring-ring o’roses

A pocket full of posies.

A-tishoo! A-tishoo!

We all fall down.

This rhyme is a startling reminder of the bubonic plague. Although

most young children cannot make this connection, many teachers

find it useful to return to the familiar nursery rhymes later at pri-

mary school and explore the origins of the rhyme.

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Children are likely to meet some fairy tales in a variety of formats.

For instance, Janet and Allan Ahlberg’s (1978) Each Peach Pear

Plum, makes only brief reference to key characters:

Cinderella on the stairs

I spy the Three Bears

Nevertheless, the detailed pictures beside each rhyme encourage

young children to think and talk about these characters, and this

can lead to extended readings of the fairy tales from other books.

In recent years, certain picture books have become part of a new

collection of received literature. Famously, The Very Hungry Cater-pillar(Carle, 1969) has been read aloud with, and read by, millions

of children around the world. It is read to children by parents who

enjoyed it in their own childhood and it still appears to captivate

children today. Not only is it part of a received literature but it also

expands a child’s world. The story of the life cycle is learned along-

side the tale about the hungry caterpillar.

Tizard and Hughes (1984) examine the responses of 4-year-oldRosy, who was sharing a book with her mother and thus exploring

aspects of a wider world. The title of the book is not indicated, but

the plot involves a puffin that witnesses a shipwreck. Here is a por-

tion of the transcript:

Child: Do, um boats, when they’re on, right on the sea

break like that?

Mother: Well, not very often, but sometimes they do. If theweather’s very bad, and they get thrown against

the rocks, they do break up. (p63)

Because the family was planning a summer holiday from England

to France, Rosy found this response unsettling:

Child: I, I, I, don’t want to. I’m not going, but we won’t go

on, if there’s too many people on the boat we

won’t go on it, will we? (p63)

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Rosy talked about boats, discussed the possibility of shipwrecks,

and made a connection to a possible sea trip. Such explorations

clarify children’s thinking and help them ‘develop a much richer

mental model of the world’ (Wells, 1986, p152), which further em-phasises the importance of story readings at home and in school.

Personal development

A number of educators have written about the power of stories

and the importance of narrative for young children. For example,

Kirby (1995) writes,

The power of stories lies in the opportunities they provide forextending

children’s thinking and feeling in numerous ways including:

their beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, values about life, situations and

people;

their thinking and responses to everyday life and complex issues;

their concerns, fears, pain, growing up, feelings and compassion for

others;

their relationships with other people;their knowledge of and responses to both their own culture and the

culture of others;

their imagination, enjoyment and satisfaction;

their abilities to predict, question, hypothesise about situations and

people;

the power to create and shape through their own stories;

the opportunity to talk to adults and peers about stories in an

atmosphere

which is collaborative, supportive and ‘risk free’. (p7-8)

Such a substantial list suggests a wider area of learning beyond

helping children become readers. And it considers the many as-

pects of thinking and feeling that are supported by narrative.

I noted this intellectual and emotional engagement as my grand-

daughter Alice gave a memorised reading of Sniff-Snuff-Snap! by

Dodd (1995) (Campbell, 1999). The plot involves a warthog res-

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tricting the use of a waterhole by other animals. After chasing the

animals away, the warthog always returns to the waterhole. At the

age of 4 years 7 months, Alice relied on her memory of previous

story readings and was able to recite the correct words about thewarthog’s last return as we looked at the final pages of the book:

Alice: Back came the warthog,

tired and hot,

for a long,

cool drink

at his favourite spot.

Down past rocks

and thornbush tree,

he came to the waterhole

BUT

what did he see?

THICK

BROWN

MUD.

(Campbell, 1999, p107)

Alice then illustrated her thinking about the story and her feelings

about the warthog by adding a last few lines. In the final picture a

drop of rain splashes on to the warthog’s back. So Alice added,

Drip, drop, drip.

The rain came down

and filled up the waterhole again. (p108)

In creating that ending, Alice demonstrated empathy for thewarthog. She was also thinking through the consequences of the

rainfall in that arid environment. Interestingly, her first line re-

captures the rhythm of the title of the story by using the dr con-

sonant blend. The frequent parent-child and grandparent-child

story readings of this book had enabled the young reader to gain

ownership of the words. This supported her development toward

becoming an independent reader. And the quality of the narrative

did far more for Alice: it encouraged her thinking and feelings

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about the characters and the plot, to which she responded so

creatively.

Numerous observations have been made about how narrative

supports personal development. Wade (1990) refers to the sus-

tenance of story, noting that quality texts provide ‘food for the

mind and for the feelings’ (p30). Evans (1998) explores children’s

thoughtful responses to key emotional issues in some stories. In

one instance, she studied year 2 children as they wrote about the

death of a pet dog in response to a reading of the story I’ll Always

Love You (Wilhelm, 1985). The children discussed the sad parts of

the story and related it to their own experiences’ concluding thatalthough the death of Elfie, the dog, was sad, the story as a whole

was not, because the dog had had a good life.

The intellectual and emotional sustenance children receive from a

story makes them want to go on reading (Bettelheim and Zelan,

1981). Ensuring that children want to continue reading, to move to

other books and to reflect on what is read is an aim for all teachers.

Books of quality

There are so many good books written for young children that one

can only mention a few. Excellent books which are cited frequently

in Reading stories with young children include those by outstand-

ing authors four different English-speaking countries: Eric Carle

from the United States; Lynley Dodd from New Zealand; Mem Fox,

whose writing is centred on Australia; and Pat Hutchins from the

United Kingdom. This still does no more than touch the surface ofthe wealth of worthwhile books that can be shared with young

children.

A much wider range of books for young children is listed in various

sources. In Trelease’s (1995) The Read-Aloud Handbook, over 100

pages are devoted to an annotated list of books that can be read

aloud and Cullinan’s (1989) annotated list appears in a chapter on

literature for young children. Routman’s Invitations (1991) listsbooks that invite readers into print and identifies predictable

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books that help children develop early reading strategies as dis-

cussed below. Professional journals such as The Reading Teacher

often feature lists of appropriate recent books to share with young

children; a regular column on children’s books started in Sep-tember 1999 (Giorgis and Johnson, 1999), and includes lists of

books for reading aloud. The columnists also group books for

particular purposes, such as ‘for inviting interaction’ (p80). English

four to eleven too has regular reviews of books for children. On the

internet booktrustchilrensbooks.org.uk and several other sites

provide information on children’s literature (Karchmer, 2000).

Teachers can stay up to date by checking the annual awards given

to outstanding books for young children.

Predictable books

Rhodes (1981) argues for the value of predictability in books for

young children. Certain books enable young children at school to

read right away, because they draw on the children’s knowledge of

language and of the world. She maintains that when the ‘language

flows naturally, and the vocabulary and content reflect what chil-dren know’ (p513), children can predict what the author is going

to say and how it will be said.

According to Rhodes, the key characteristic of predictability is the

use of repetitive patterns. For example, Slinki Malinki, Open the

Door (Dodd, 1993) relates the mischievous adventures of the cat,

Slinki Malinki and a parrot. After each room they visit the text re-

peats the rhyme:Slinki Malinki

jumped high off the floor,

he swung on a handle

and opened

a door.

Children hearing this book in a read-aloud can soon predict the

next page and prepare for the havoc the cat and the parrot willwreak in the next room.

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Predictable books are characterised by familiar concepts, a sym-

biotic match of text to illustrations, rhyme, rhythm of language,

the familiarity of the story or story line to the child, and the use of

familiar sequences (Rhodes, 1981). What does this mean whenbooks such as Slinki Malinki are read in a classroom? Children al-

ready know that cats may make a mess at home, so this story in-

volves familiar concepts and thus assists their understanding. The

close match between the text and illustrations also supports the

predictability.

Children bring their knowledge to school. Many arrive with some

knowledge of folk tales, fairy tales and songs. When they meet Cin-derella again, the familiarity of the characters aids the predicta-

bility. Some multilayered texts (Watson, 1993) make use of that

familiarity. As noted earlier, in Each Peach Pear Plum (Ahlberg and

Ahlberg, 1978) the characters from one familiar text meet

charactersfrom other texts:

Cinderella on the stairs

I spy the Three Bears

This theme runs throughout the story.

We saw how Eric Carle used the familiar sequence of numbers

from 1 to 5 and the days of the week in The Very Hungry Caterpillar.

The two sequences are linked as the caterpillar eats his way

through the fruit on each day of the week. The children bring some

understanding of these familiar sequences to the story reading,

and the story further develops their understanding and aids theirprediction of what is to come. The children’s knowledge of lan-

guage and the world helps them create meanings from books, and

the repetition, rhyme, and rhythm of the text – what Wade (1990)

calls ‘the three R’s’ of language and story (p7) – support the young

children’s learning.

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Repetition

Repetition that contributes to the story line helps children become

good readers. Typically, the repetition is of a phrase or sentence

rather than a single word, as in some reading schemes used in thepast. In Slinki Malinki, Open the Door, the repeated sentence

contributes greatly to the excitement of the story and the build-up

to its conclusion. The phrase appears six times on six of the 15

pages of print. The repetition also aids children when they begin to

read such texts for themselves.

Because the repeated phrase or sentence is an integral part of the

story, children pick up the phrase very quickly. For instance, whenAlice was 2 years 9 months old, it took just one reading at home of

Good-Night Owl (Hutchins, 1972) before she contributed a key

repetition:

Grandfather: Owl

Alice: tried to sleep.

Grandfather: The bees buzzed,

buzz buzz,

and

Alice: owl tried to sleep.

(Campbell, 1999, p59)

Although Alice had not yet begun to give much attention to the

print in books, she did use that key phrase when she tried to con-

struct the story by herself immediately after hearing the story for asecond time:

Alice: Owl tried to sleep

There’s the bees,

Owl tried to sleep

and

the bees buzzed

buzz buzz.

Owl tried to sleep

and the squirrel was sitting in the tree.

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It is not only girls who listen attentively to story at that age and

learn by heart much of the content. Louie at 2 years 8 months had

absorbed much of the book ‘Emergency!’ (Mayo, 2002) during the

frequent repeat readings he requested. So that as his grandfatherread to, and with, him Louie made a major contribution to the

story reading, using his knowledge of the repeated words and story

rhythm.

Grandfather Ambulance speeding

Louie emergency!

Whee-oww! Whee-oww! Pull over, make way!

Siren screaming, light beam-beaming.

Grandfather Help is coming –

Louie it’s on the way!

While repetition contributes to this story line, it also builds up the

predictability and helps children toward ownership of the text. In

addition, it supports young readers when they attempt to con-struct the story for themselves or move toward reading a well-

known book on their own.

Rhyme

A number of picture books include a rhyme element, which

children generally love. For instance, in Hairy Maclary from

Donaldson’s Dairy (Dodd, 1983), the main characters are

introduced one by one in an extending rhyme:

Schnitzel von Krumm

with a very low tum,

Bitzer Maloney

all skinny and bony,

Muffin McLay

like a bundle of hay,

Bottomley Potts

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covered in spots,

Hercules Morse

as big as a horse

and Hairy Maclaryfrom Donaldson’s dairy.

Young children greatly enjoy this story, and they are usually keen

to join in with the rhyme within minutes. It is not surprising that

after a reading they can be heard using the rhymes as they engage

with other activities in the classroom. And any sighting of a

Dalmatian dog is almost certain to evoke the words ‘Bottomley

Potts covered in spots.’

Not only do children like to hear rhymes, they also enjoy playing

with words and using them to create their own rhymes or jingles

(Chukovsky, 1963). Teachers can capitalise on this interest in the

classroom, first by providing worthwhile books for story readings

and then by using their learning as a basis for phonological

development. As Meek (1990) indicates, when children have fun

with rhymes, phonology is developed. For example, with HairyMaclary from Donaldson’s Dairy, the play with rhyme leads to an

awareness of onset such as (m and h) and rime (-orse), as inMorse

and horse. This awareness, Goswami and Bryant (1990) suggest, is

significant feature of children’s development as readers.

A brief look at a few lines from one of Dr. Seuss’s books, such as

Green Eggs and Ham (1960), illustrates how children will be made

aware of onset and rime:

That Sam-I-am!

I do not like

that Sam-I-am!

Do you like

green eggs and ham?

And later in the rhyme:

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Would you eat them

in a box?

Would you eat them

with a fox?

In the first instance, the rime element -am together with the onset

letters Sand h become part of the children’s language and aware-

ness. The rime -oxtogether with the onset b andfare among the

many others that follow. But mainly the children enjoy the non-

sense of the repeating rhyme throughout the book.

RhythmRhythm is an important feature of books for young children. The

use of rhyme and repetition in Green Eggs and Ham creates a

rhythm that children listen to and like to use for themselves. It is

doubtful whether this book is ever read aloud without the words

being delivered in an almost song-like rhythm with the words.

Children enjoy the rhythms that are created by the repetition and

rhyme.

Rhythm in stories also appeals to children, and is produced in a

various ways in the books that are read aloud. In The Very Hungry

Caterpillar, a two-page spread highlights the foods the caterpillar

ate on Saturday:

On Saturday

he ate through

one piece ofchocolate cake,

one ice-cream cone,

one pickle,

one slice of Swiss cheese,

one slice of salami...

The repetition of oneon this first page of text is repeated another

five times on the opposite page as other foods are introduced.However, it is the listing of the foods that appears to give the

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rhythm to the text. The alliteration, such as slice of salami, adds a

rhythmic feel to the text and attracts the children to the words.

The image created by the sounds in slice of salamican remain pro-

minent in children’s minds. In a classroom, of 5 year-old children

(Campbell, 1992), I observed Richard read Carle’s book to his

teacher in an individual reading conference. The correct reading of

each miscue follows in parentheses:

Richard: one slice of salami (Swiss) cheese

one slice of salami

one lollipop

and then at the end of that double page

one slice of salami (watermelon). (p24)

Richard miscued Swiss and watermelon as the memory and

rhythm of slice of salamidominated part of his reading.

Fox (1993) notes the importance of rhythm in some of the story-

telling of pre-schoolers. One of the children in her study, Josh,regularly heard weather reports on the radio which described con-

ditions at sea at Fair Isle, Dogger Bank, and Rockall and elsewhere.

Josh caught the rhythm of those broadcasts and enjoyed produc-

ing his own weather reports.

Many teachers of young children seek predictability, repetition,

rhyme, and rhythm in the books they read to the children. Others

suggest different criteria for quality books. Nutbrown (1994) main-

tains that children’s books should be evaluated according to their

appeal, readability, content, development and inclusivity. Hart-

Hewins and Wells (1990) suggest a somewhat similar list, namely:

content, language, attractiveness, and ease of reading. Teachers

can add their own criteria to such lists based on their experience

of reading to children and their discussion with colleagues about

books. Many factors need to be taken into account when selecting

books for reading to and with young children.

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Poetry and non-fiction

The emphasis in this chapter has been on the importance of narra-

tive and children’s engagement with stories through the use of

high-quality storybooks for story readings at home and school.However, teachers of young children know poetry and non-fiction

also have an important place in readings aloud.

Some of the stories that are read to children might be regarded as

extended poems. The rhyme and rhythm of many nursery rhymes,

songs, and stories that are read aloud to children ensure that they

will also enjoy hearing poetry read aloud. From readings, children

often like to move on to reading other poetry and writing their ownsimple rhymes and poems.

Many stories communicate facts. For instance, Cimru the Seal

(Radcliffe, 1997) provides information beyond the story about the

life of a seal, its diet and predators. The children learn much of that

information incidentally, as the story is read aloud. However, in a

Year 2 classroom I observed, a discussion after the story was read

demonstrated that the children were interested in exploring thefactual aspects of the text. So it important that from time to time

teachers choose non-fiction books, or sections from them, as read-

alouds. The children then have a model of scientific writing, and

they can consider the ‘well-formed argument’ (Bruner, 1968, p99).

The many different books that are read to and with children will

interest and excite them. The story readings, and the activities that

are linked to them, also facilitate the children’s reading and writ-ing. At the same time, the children also learn about print features

(Wolf, 2008). This is the subject of Chapter 5.

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5Reading stories and

print features

he range of excellent storybooks available for reading aloud

enables young children to experience the widest possible

contact with letters, sounds and spellings. Studies of young

children who regularly have stories read to them at home indicate

that they move on to school with a strong foundation of grapho-

phonic knowledge (Campbell, 2004). The miscues these children

produce as they read and the invented spellings they create as they

write are indicators of this knowledge. For children in the early

years of primary school, reading stories in the classroom provide a

similar opportunity to learn about the alphabet, phonics and

spelling. As Kane (1999) argues, phonics can and should be taughtfrom meaningful contexts: ‘The quality children’s literature we

want our children immersed in provides all the examples of

phonics enthusiasts could ever want’ (p771).

Just the titles of books such as Hop on Pop (Seuss, 1963) hint at the

learning that is likely to take place as such books are shared with

children. Part of this story rhyme reads,

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We like to hop.

We like to hop

on top of Pop.

STOP

You must not

hop on Pop.

As children explore and think about writing, their awareness of

sounds is enhanced. Singing, reciting, writing and playing with

words such as hop, Pop, top and stop makes that so. As Strickland

(1998) suggests, the children’s involvement in rhymes, songs, and

alliteration in various links to story readings promotes phonemic

awareness. It also provides the basis for learning the letters of the

alphabet, phonics and spelling.

Alphabet

Powell and Hornsby (1998) demonstrate that children using litera-

ture in a reception class can consider graphophonic connections

in a meaningful way. They show how one teacher used text fromthe storybook Possum Magic(Fox, 1983) to help the children think

about a letter and then create an alliteration. The book reads:

Later, on a beach in Perth, they ate a piece of pavlova.

Hush’s legs appeared. So did her body.

‘You look wonderful, you precious possum!’ said Grandma Poss.

The teacher and the children used the alliteration to create a

tongue twister: The precious possum had a piece of pavlova inPerth.

Over a few days the teacher developed a chart of pwords, starting

with words from the story, and the children suggested other words

to add to the list. Together they created a word wall that used

words from the story reading, children’s forenames and other

words they found important: Perth, pavlova, precious, possum,

Patrick, party, puppy, Paul and pink(p86).

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Staying with the theme, the teacher selected poems such as ‘Peter,

Peter, Pumpkin Eater’ to extend the children’s attention to the

letter. The <Pp> letter chart (showing both uppercase and lower-

case letters) was hung on the wall for the children to add otherwords beginning with p.

The class went on to develop the link with the story. As the pos-

sums continue their journey around Australia eating ‘people food,’

the story reveals that:

They ate Anzac biscuits in Adelaide,

mornay and Minties in Melbourne,

steak and salad in Sydney,

and pumpkin scones in Brisbane.

Powell and Hornsby show how the first two lines formed the basis

for two other letter charts. Again, the teacher began with words

from the story and then added words from the children. Such

activities helped them learn the letters of the alphabet and move

beyond it to detailed consideration of the letters.

Non-fiction alphabet books, such as Animalia (Base, 1986), can

add to the children’s learning when they are used as the basis for a

story reading. As Strickland (1998) notes, making alphabet books

readily available in the classroom for the children to browse

through after reading it aloud furthers their interest and supports

their learning.

PhonicsThe fact that the children are learning phonics from story readings

and follow-up activities is evident in numerous ways. For instance,

during one reception story reading of When I Was Little Like You

(Walsh, 1997), one of the 5-year-olds in the class made an un-

expected comment:

Teacher: ‘When I was little like you,’ said Gran,

‘we bought fish from the boatman on the

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quay. A brace of bright mackerel for

supper, still fresh and shining.’

Francis: You get a /k/ with three letters. Like in quay. You

can have a k, c, or q.

The teacher had not taught these letters and letter sounds directly,

but the constant play with language, words and letters ensured

that they were learned. The story reading led to a consideration of

initial letter-sound correspondences and thinking about some

words. It also gave the children a chance to initiate discussions

about letter sounds.

In one first year classroom, the teacher read aloud the Big Book

version of Walking Through the Jungle (Lacome, 1993), and en-

couraged the children to write a sentence using alliteration. Some

of the children chose an animal from the story, such as the croco-

dile (see Figure 9).

In this writing, the child was able to produce alliteration by spell-

ing each word conventionally, although substituting an for a.Other children wrote about animals that were not part of the story,

such as a flamingo (see Figure 10).

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 9 : Crocodile Sentence

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Althoughfluffyingmay not be a recognised word, here it appears

to fit well with the child’s description of it. As the word flamingo

was not part of the story, it had to be written unseen and the child

demonstrated knowledge of letters and sounds and a willingness

to construct words using this knowledge. When children are en-couraged to write following story readings – and when their spell-

ings are acknowledged for the learning that is demonstrated – the

foundations are in place for conventional spelling to develop,

especially when the teacher and the children talk freely about

letters, sounds and words in context. As Geekie, Cambourne and

Fitzsimmons (1999) note, when children are encouraged to write

from the very beginning of schooling, the need for the explicit

teaching of phonics is reduced.

READING STORIES AND PRINT FEATURES

Figure 10: Flamingo Sentence

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The alliterative writing activity, like many other literacy activities,

encouraged the children to think about letters and sounds in the

context of a story they enjoyed. The extended alliteration that is

contained in Margaret Attwood’s Princess Prunella and the PurplePeanut (1995) is typically enjoyed by older primary children. In

one year five classroom the children discussed the writing and

then proceeded to write their own alliterative stories. The extent of

the children’s enjoyment and understanding is illustrated in these

few sentences from one of their stories:

Pretty puppy eats lots of portions of pies and for pudding a plum.

She is now getting very plump. Pretty puppy likes to pounceon people, she pulls and pushes a lot.

Such writing is creative. Stimulated by the story reading, it fosters

a clear understanding of alliteration and encourages the children

to play with words, letters and sounds, and language.

There are numerous ways in which children can explore letters

and sounds creatively. Opitz (2000) provides guidance about the

possibilities suggesting various books that can serve as the basisfor exploring alliteration and other aspects of letter-sound corres-

pondences naturally, as the stories are read aloud.

When children are encouraged to write in a variety of formats, they

develop an understanding of phonics and a love of writing. Phinn

(2000) suggests that young children should both listen to and write

poems. Miniature poems, such as the Japanese haiku, are

manageable for children because they are short. Children in yearstwo and three respond well to the discipline of the haiku’s short

lines of five, seven, and five syllables. It requires them to think

carefully about letters and sounds as they consider the syllables in

each word. This builds on earlier work they may have done in pre-

school and reception classrooms to clap out the syllables in their

names and in nursery rhymes (Ericson and Juliebö, 1998).

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Word wall

The walls of the classrooms for young children traditionally carry

a great deal of print. As long ago as 1958 the many pictures in God-

dard’s book on infant school reading show simple print being usedto support children’s reading and writing. Goddard argued that

just having the print on the wall is not enough; the teacher has to

talk about it with the children.

Goddard’s children also had their own ‘wordbooks’ or individual

dictionaries. Throughout the year, the children expanded them,

adding words from the classroom print and reading books, and

words they asked the teacher to help them spell correctly. Thestrategy supported children with a personal resource for words

they might otherwise have difficulty with. But the teacher could

not always prevent the dictionaries from becoming overloaded

with words that were seldom used. Neither could she support

every child as needed and some important words were probably

missed. Providing a classroom dictionary or word wall tries to

overcome such difficulties.

Cunningham and Allington (1999) argue for word walls in recep-

tion and primary classrooms but they too point out that it is not

enough for the teacher to hang a word wall in the classroom and

suggest that the children use it as necessary. Instead, these authors

argue, it is important for the teachers to ‘DO’ word walls. In parti-

cular, they suggest that the teacher should:

be selective and ‘stingy’ about what words go up there,limiting the words to those really common words that

children need a lot in writing

add words gradually – five a week

make them accessible by putting them where everyone

can see them, writing them in big black letters, and using

a variety of colours so that words which are constantly

confused (for, from, that, them, they, this, etc.) are in dif-ferent colours.

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practice the words by chanting and writing them because

struggling readers are seldom good at visual learning and

can’t just look at words and remember them

do a variety of review activities to provide enough practice

so the children can read and spell the words instantly and

automatically

make sure that word-wall words are spelled correctly in all

their writing. (adapted from Cunningham and Allington,

1999, p136)

The first and last points stress the need for the teacher to be veryselective in the words they choose. Their expectations can support

the children in learning key high-frequency words and so facilitate

their reading and writing.

Many reception teachers start by placing each child’s forename in

the word wall in alphabetic order, which has a section for each

letter of the alphabet. Studies of individual children before they

start school emphasise the importance of their ability to writetheir own name (Baghban, 1984; Campbell, 1999; Schickedanz,

1990) and the children are interested in seeing their name on the

wall. The class can also make comparisons from the listings. For

example, it would be remarkable if there were not at least two chil-

dren with forenames starting with the same letter. Then the

teacher can expand the list by adding some of the key characters

from storybooks or some high-frequency words, as suggested by

Cunningham and Allington (1999). The word wall supports the

children’s learning of the alphabet, recognition of each letter and

phonic knowledge of initial letter sounds.

Moustafa (1997) also advocates the use of word walls, suggesting

that they be created specifically from the predictable stories that

are read aloud in class. In this case, the teacher asks the children to

choose their favourite words from the story after reading a story

several times. The children will be supported further if the teacher

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places a picture from the story, perhaps of the key character, next

to each word.

Additionally, the teacher can highlight certain letters of each word

to emphasise the onset or rime – which is an important part of

children’s learning (Goswami, 1999). For a Humpty-Dumpty story

with the words wallandfall, the teacher might highlight the onset

/w/ or /f/, or the rime element /all/. The words can be regrouped

frequently as the teacher talks with the children about words start-

ing with /w/, or when the class is considering other /all/ rimes. As

Moustafa (1997) indicates, such strategies make the phonics in-

struction ‘explicit, systematic and extensive’ (p93).

For Moustafa, working in this way creates a whole-to-parts phonic

instruction. However, it differs from traditional phonics instruc-

tion, or the return of synthetic phonics into the classroom (Rose,

2006), in that it follows, rather than precedes, the story. It is only

after a story has been read to, with, and by children that parts of

the words are taught. And it concentrates on units of the syllable –

namely, letter-onset and letter-rime correspondences – ratherthan letter-phoneme correspondences.

Whichever approach is used, the word walls provide support in a

number of ways:

the children will learn about the letters of the alphabet as

each section has a space available for words to be added

the sequence of the alphabet is shown by the word walland the teacher can bring the children’s attention to that

feature (as well as singing some of the well-known alpha-

bet songs)

the high-frequency key words can become part of child’s

visual memory of words

words of interest from the story come from the children

and mean something to them so can be learned morereadily (Ashton-Warner, 1963)

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the children learn about word families, first at the level of

initial letter similarity and then when the word wall is

developed with onset and rime highlighted.

Spelling

Teachers of young children may be concerned lest the use of the

word wall might reduce the children’s use of invented spellings. If

numerous words are displayed, the children have less need to go

through the process of sounding out the word to work out how to

represent it in print. So teachers need to use word walls with

thoughtfully. The children’s engagement with invented spellings is

too precious to lose.

Interestingly, invented spelling is one of the key links between

whole language and phonic-based views of early reading develop-

ment. Goodman (1990) explores how children are active construc-

tors of knowledge. Invented spelling not only tells us about what

they know but also shows how they are constructing literacy from

their increasingly sophisticated understanding of print conven-

tions. Adams (1990), although from a different perspective, also

values invented spellings:

In overview, classroom encouragement of invented spellings and

independent writing from the start seems a promising approach to-

wards the development of literacy skills. Beyond all that was mentioned

above and whether the children are directing their efforts towards good

descriptions or imaginative stories, this approach appears incom-

parable for purposes of developing their abilities to reflect on their ownthoughts, to elaborate and organise their ideas, and to express them-

selves in print. (p386-387)

The teacher will want to support young children in their under-

standing of print and the production of words in their writing. The

word wall can support the children in these endeavours as it helps

to create for each child a visual memory of some key and fre-

quently used words that they can then write automatically andconventionally. But teachers will want to ensure that for much of

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the time, and with many words, the children are actively engaged

in constructing the word themselves, using their knowledge of

letters and sounds. Initially, this produces invented rather than

conventional spellings. It also lays the foundations of literacyknowledge that will serve the children well in the future.

Knowledge of letters, phonics and spelling are all developed from

story readings and associated literacy activities such as writing,

which arise naturally from those readings. Young children learn

about print features because they are immersed in language and

literacy. Teachers can support and guide this learning as they talk

about print before and after they enjoy hearing stories read tothem.

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6Activities based on reading stories

Some teachers read a story with their class early in the day;

Hart-Hewins and Wells (1990) for instance often schedule

the story reading time just before the children’s work

period. This allows the teachers to suggest activities that link the

story with the children’s play, writing and art. Drawing and writingabout books helps children understand and think through the

stories. When teachers choose books of quality most children are

inclined to follow the reading by responding in some way, be it

through role-play, drawing, writing, making a book, constructing a

model, creating and using a puppet, or learning a song. The forms

of response will vary, but some response is likely.

It is clear that a wide range of activities, or ‘enterprises’ as Routman(1991) calls them, can be developed from stories that are read to

and with children. However, it is essential that the stories remain

paramount and the other activities and learning are derived

naturally from them. Not every book should be linked into the

work of the class. Nevertheless, the teacher should be aware of the

activities that can be generated by each story, and use the chil-

dren’s enthusiasm and enjoyment of the story as a guide to the

activities that are provided or suggested.

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For instance, before she read The Snail and the Whale(Donaldson,

2003) to the class, a Year 1 teacher considered possible avenues for

development. She mapped these possibilities into a subject web

(see Figure 11).

The teacher did not use all these activities but took account of

used the interests of the children to determine which of them to

follow up. But as the children explored the story, the web re-

minded the teacher of other possibilities. Often the story leads to

other stories or one like The Snail and the Cherry Tree(Dalgleish,

1990) might introduce a scientific consideration of snails. What-

ever avenue is chosen, many teachers follow a story reading bysupporting the children’s explorations of the story in various ways.

The examples that follow come from different classrooms and age

groups and feature a range of stories.

Role play

Young children use the stories they have heard in their play activi-

ties in the classroom quite naturally (Carter, 1999). Teachers can

support children’s learning by linking a role play area to a recent

story, by for instance arranging a corner to resemble a cave after

the class reads Can’t You Sleep, Little Bear? (Waddell, 1988). The

story begins:

‘Can’t you sleep, Little Bear?’

asked Big Bear, putting down his Bear Book

(which was just getting to the interesting part) and

padding over to the bed.‘I’m scared,’ said Little Bear.

‘Why are you scared, Little Bear?’ asked Big Bear.

‘I don’t like the dark,’ said Little Bear.

During the role play, the children can act out aspects of the story,

and in this instance revisit their own concerns, such as fear of the

dark. And because this book contains positive literacy images as

Big Bear reads a book, the teacher can place a small collection ofbooks in the cave to support the play. And there are other Big Bear

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ACTIVITIES BASED ON READING STORIES

Figure 11: Subject web for The Snail and the Whale

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books to be read with the class eg Let’s go home little bear(Wad-

dell, 1991).

Hall and Robinson (1985) suggest that the use of storybooks with

literacy-based images may contribute to children’s understanding

of reading and writing. However, it is the characters and events of

the stories that provide such a strong basis for the children’s play.

As White (1954) indicates in relation to her daughter Carol’s play at

home, ‘How these children’s books take hold and inhabit her

mind!’ (p164). Stories do indeed capture the children’s minds, ex-

tend their imagination, and support role-play.

Adult involvement in the role-play can vary from just reading the

story to preparing an area to reflect the setting of a book. In some

classrooms, the level of teacher involvement and direction for

role-play is even greater. Morado, Koenig and Wilson (1999) report

on their work with children from reception to year two in which

they brought together ‘literature, drama, music and movement’

(p116). The children developed miniperformances that drew on

an initial reading of a story. The teachers guided the processthrough six 30-minute sessions over three weeks. The more formal

role-play entailed creating a script using the children’s own words,

the children’s use of these scripts, and the performance given to a

small audience of classmates, teachers and family. Through this

process, the children heard the story read a number of times,

helped to produce the writing of the script, learned the words of

the script, and demonstrated their literacy to the family. All this

developed from enjoyment of a story.

Drawing and writing

Children enjoy drawing and writing about story characters. In one

first year class the teacher chose Four Fierce Kittens (Dunbar, 1991)

to read to them. Some of the children responded by telling and

writing the story themselves. The teacher wrote four of the key

words on a word wall: kittens, frighten, scare, and animals. The

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children’s responses and writing revealed the different levels of

confidence with print. One wrote a simple sentence of nine words:

one day fore kittens went to scare the sheep.

The sentence does not begin with a capital letter but does end with

a full stop. The child used two of the displayed words, kittensand

scare. In addition, six words are written conventionally. The one

invented spelling, fore, is an appropriate representation for the

wordfour.

Another child wrote rather more (see Figure 12), starting with the

fairy tale opening of ‘Once upon a time...’ There are four sentences,which are each marked by capital letters and full stops, although

capital letters appear at other times too. All the words are spelled

conventionally.

Both the children’s responses include the main feature of the story:

it’s about kittens scaring other creatures on a farm. However, the

author of the second piece was able to extend that idea and also

explain the kittens’ behaviour.

As the children write their own versions of a story, they may reveal

which parts they found most important. For example, Rosie’s Walk

(Hutchins, 1987) has a hen as the main character, a fox appears

only in the illustrations but no reference is made to it in the text.

Five-year-old John wrote a version including the fox in his retell-

ing, and remarked in his final sentence that he enjoyed the story

because the bag of flour fell on the fox (Figure 13).Intriguingly, John was confident enough to use decided, sneaked

and stalkingin his writing. Other children will be far more con-

strained in their writing, although they may make fewer reversals

and have clearer handwriting than John.

If Rosie the hen can go for a walk, then so can the teacher and

young children. This extends the story and leads to other writing

activities. John’s class went for a walk, talking with the adults aboutwhat they were seeing as they walked. When they returned to the

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READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Figure 12: Four sentences about kittens

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ACTIVITIES BASED ON READING STORIES

Figure 13: John’s version of Rosie’s Walk

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classroom, the teacher gave them the opportunity to represent the

walk with words and pictures. Michael wrote about what he had

seen (see Figure 14).

Michael’s writing is characterised by his imagination and his

observation. The rabbits may have been hopping on the grass, but

Michael was thinking beyond that when he suggested they were

looking for carrots. We can only guess at why graves appear as his

second observation.

It is not just younger primary school children who benefit from

hearing exciting stories read to them and having time to respond

to them through writing. Nicholson (2006) describes how year 5

and 6 children had complex stories read aloud to them, talked

about those books, reread them in various ways (see Chapter 6),

used drama and role play and then wrote about them. The chil-

dren appeared to develop a wider understanding of their own

writing by engaging with the texts. All primary school children

benefit from story readings that foster their writing.

Making books

Children love to be involved in making their own books. They can

do so in a small group, with the whole class, or on their own.

According to Burman (1990), both class and individual book-

making should be regular features of young children’s classroom

experience.

Michael wrote a short piece on his own, while knowing that it wasalso to contribute to a class book. The class book was titled Our

Walk, and was linked to the story of Rosie’s Walk. The teacher

pasted the children’s writing on the right-hand pages and neatly

summarised their contributions on the left-hand pages. Opposite

Michael’s writing, she wrote, ‘We went past the church. In the yard

we saw graves.’ The clear print on each left-hand page helped the

children read the book for themselves. They could recognise that

the teacher had used their words. The book was placed in the

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ACTIVITIES BASED ON READING STORIES

Figure 14: Michael’s writing after class walk

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classroom library and the children felt they had authored Our

Walkand took pride in the sense of ownership.

On another occasion the children might contribute to a class book

as part of a shared or interactive writing session as they re-create a

story (see Chapter 7). Again, this allows children to feel that they

have authored the book. The individual contributions of each

child will be less evident in the finished product of a shared writ-

ing. However their efforts from an interactive writing session will

be clear for all to see.

By producing class books in these ways, children complete the

circle of reading, writing and reading. The story reading excites

their interest and provides a basis for creating their own writing.

Their writing forms a book for them and others to read. And the

collaborative texts help build a library of treasured books in the

class.

In addition to class books, children also enjoy making books by

themselves. Burman (1990) suggests that one way to help children

start writing is to ask what they know a lot about. From this discus-

sion, the teacher can help the children create a brainstorming web

that provides a plan for the writing. The class can also create a web

about a book from a read-aloud session. Each child can then draw

and write about characters or other features of the book, recreate

the story or develop another one.

There are several ways to help children create individual books.

For example, the teacher can simply staple together the children’s

drawings and writing. Alternately, each child can write in an eight

page booklet – what Johnson (1998) calls an ‘origami book’ (p9). It

consists of front and back covers and three double spreads inside,

making six pages. This, Johnson argues, is an ideal writing project

planner. When the six pages are seen as three spreads, he writes,

the ‘fundamental story structure of beginning, middle and end fits

it like a glove’ (p8).

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Children take pleasure in making and using these little books.

They can see immediately that the task is manageable and that

when they are done they will have made their own book. I have

seen children enjoying authoring their own little books from thenursery classroom right through to year 6. As Routman observes,

the books become ‘a fantastic and favourite resource’ (1991, p90).

The attraction of being an author and having ownership of a book

they have made encourages children to draw and write about the

stories they enjoy in read-alouds.

Arts and crafts

When children use a booklet to re-create their response to a story,

they usually put in some drawings. In the eight page format they

typically enjoy creating a picture on each page, followed by a word,

phrase or sentence of description. Thus they are already linking art

to literacy as a follow-up to hearing a story read.

Children also enjoy creating larger pictures of the key characters or

events in the story. When the classroom is organised so that chil-

dren can paint at various times throughout the day, many children

paint in response to a story reading. Morrow (1989) suggests that

reception classrooms should be set up to include an art centre.

Hart-Hewins and Wells (1999) also mention having a separate

paint centre, even if space allows for only one specialised centre. A

selection of paints and paper are the tools for the children to ex-

plore their interest in the story.

The teacher can use the children’s enthusiasm for representing

aspects of the story in paint. Many early years teachers create

opportunities for children to create a collage of events from a

story. This activity encourages the children to paint, work colla-

boratively and discuss the best organisation for the collage. Cloth,

cardboard, foil, tissue paper and other materials can be stuck onto

a three-dimensional collage. The children remain engrossed in the

details of the story, which character to paint, which events to de-

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pict, so that while they are painting, the children are also develop-

ing their skills in literacy.

Once the collage is completed and on display, the class can discuss

what print to include. For instance, if the collage is about The Very

Hungry Caterpillar, they might choose to write some of the words,

phrases and sentences from the story. Producing this writing for

the collage provides further opportunities for the teacher and chil-

dren to work together on literacy. We saw in Chapter 1 how a re-

ception class worked together to add print to their caterpillar

collage:

Teacher: That caterpillar is among all the strawberries.

How many strawberries have we got?

Jamie: Four.

Teacher: We have. So what shall we write here?

Danny: On ... On Thursday he eated four strawberries.

Teacher: He did.

On Thursday

he ate through

four strawberries,

but

Children: he was still

hungry.

Teacher: So I’ll write On. Who is going to help me?

Teresa: O and n.

Teacher: That’s right: On.

This short excerpt shows how the children were involved in pro-

ducing writing as they returned to the enjoyment of the story. We

can notice, too, how the teacher accepted Danny’s contribution

and immediately provided a model of the actual words from thebook. All the children know that ‘he was still hungry.’ And Teresa

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was able to help the teacher write the first word: On. From time to

time the class returned to the completed collage for shared read-

ing, an extension of reading stories in which the entire class can

see the text and focus on print features (for more on shared read-ing see Chapter 7).

Children also enjoy constructing models as part of their response

to a story. Boxes and other scrap material are useful. So are paper,

glue, scissors, boxes, egg cartons, toothpicks, cotton balls and

other materials. Dough or clay are also good. Each opportunity to

construct a model can extend the children’s thinking about the

story. Pahl (1999) argues that for some children, especially boys,model making is an important link to literacy. She was looking at

the pre-school classroom, but she also notes how a child in year

two became very involved in writing when this activity was related

to a model he had just constructed. Many children are thinking of

a narrative and developing their understanding of a text, as they

paint and construct.

Making and using puppets

Making puppets is another way of linking with a specific story. The

reception class featured in Chapter 1 used stick puppets as part of

a reading of The Very Hungry Caterpillar. This generated so much

interest that the children later decided to make mouse puppets,

after the teacher read them another book by Carle, Do You Want to

Be My Friend?(1991).

Powell and Hornsby (1998) describe how three children in a year

two class created stick puppets after they heard a reading of

Possum Magic (Fox, 1983). They used the puppets as part of their

own play activities, and wrote a script for their puppet play.

Younger children too can plan a puppet play, and a few may be

able to begin to construct a simple script.

One of the attractions of stick puppets is that they are easy to

make. The child draws a picture of the character, cuts it out and

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attaches it to a handle made of a stick or rolled paper. Objects from

the story or features of its setting, such as four strawberries, can be

drawn, cut out and attached to a handle to become part of the

story to be told by the young puppeteers.

Or children might create glove or finger puppets, or masks. Some

shy children become more vocal when the glove, finger or mask is

the main object of attention. And as the children act out or re-

create the story, its words and rhythms remain in their thinking

and are remembered.

Songs and rhymesChildren enjoy singing songs and rhymes that relate to the subject

of a book, and the activity increases their learning. Ruby Campbell

(1998) relates how a story can inspire a wide variety of learning. In

a pre-school classroom, the teacher read Barn on Fire (Amery,

1989). What appears in the story to be a fire in a barn is actually

smoke from a picnic fire on the other side of the barn. The teacher

then sang the following song:

London’s burning,

London’s burning.

Fetch the engine,

Fetch the engine.

Fire, Fire,

Fire, Fire.

Pour on water,

Pour on water.

The class went on to learn the song, together with actions such as

holding a hand to the mouth to call out ‘Fire, Fire’ and pretending

to ‘pour on water’ with an imaginary bucket. The children were at

first puzzled about why they would use a bucket to pour on water

so the teacher explained:

My song is about London a long time ago when the houses were made

of wood and they were very close together. There were no telephones

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to get fire engines and they had to use buckets to ‘pour on water.’ Shall

we sing it again?

London’s burning,

London’s burning ... (Campbell, 1998, p134)

At the end of the school day, the children were to be seen telling

the adults who had come to collect them all about the story, or

singing the song to them.

This link with parents is important to ensure that some of the

literacy learning in the classroom is further developed at home

(Weinberger, Hannon, and Nutbrown, 1990). Some pre-schools

and schools give out a list of the days when parents are en-

couraged to visit the classroom and work alongside the children.

Such visits enable parents to witness a story reading. Or the story

reading may be demonstrated and debated during parent-teacher

meetings. The link enables the parents to share some of the chil-

dren’s excitement of the learning that takes place during and

following a reading. And it means that when children continue

singing and taking part in other activities at home, long after thestory reading has taken place, their parents can enhance their

learning.

Reading stories leads into other reading activities. Some of the

many possibilities are explored in the next chapter.

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7Interactive reading activities

Shared reading

n The Foundations of Literacy, Don Holdaway (1979) intro-

duced and developed the important activity of ‘shared book ex-

perience’. In recent years this has become known as ‘shared

reading’ (Smith and Elley, 1994), but the nature of the activity

remains the same. The adult demonstrates the reading process

with a Big Book or other large print, and the children contribute to

the activity by reading some of the print, making comments and

asking questions. Such literacy activity is used widely in class-

rooms with young children – and for good reason.

There is an important difference between reading stories with

young children and shared reading, which is to do with the visibi-

lity of the print. The print used for a shared reading is large – to be

‘seen, shared and discussed’ (Holdaway, 1979, p64). The book may

be held or placed on a stand. Teachers place themselves in a posi-

tion that does not obscure the children’s view.

During shared reading, the teacher is likely to talk about the print

more and to draw from the children’s comments and questions

about the text. This replicates the one-on-one read-aloud ex-

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perience the children may have at home, when they can see the

print easily. In addition, shared reading provides additional

opportunities for the class to discuss characters, events and story

meanings.

Holdaway (1979) describes an example of a shared reading as it

was first developed He reports on the reading and the questions

the teacher asks. The blanks indicate where the children joined in.

Teacher: One day she met a frog. ‘Who is she talking to?’

She said – - —: ‘How many words?’

‘Frog, frog,

please play with me A repetitive section suitable

I’m all by myself for chiming in.

As you can see.’

‘Yes,’ said the frog,

‘I will — — —, ‘What does she want him to

do?’

We will play at j—-. ‘Perhaps discuss names

beginning withj.

(Holdaway, 1979, p69)

This account shows how the teacher encourages thinking about

the text and the print. For instance, just as in a story reading, the

children are encouraged to join in with the repetitive section of the

story. Then the teacher’s question ‘What does she want him to do?’

prompts the children to consider the events of the story. The

teacher may also use the story’s letters and letter sounds to link the

wordjumpingwith children’s names beginning withj. This helps

them consider letters and sounds within the context of the story.

Slaughter (1992) also examines shared book experiences. Like

Holdaway, she argues that the use of Big Books enables the class-

room teacher to ‘simulate the bedtime story experience’ (p16).

Slaughter suggests a range of activities that could follow from

reading the story, and indicates a number of simple but valuable

practical points for the classroom teacher to note.

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Teachers should use the same criteria for selecting books for

shared reading as they do for story reading. The stories should

have the familiar features of repetition, rhyme and rhythm

(Rhodes, 1981). In some instances, a particularly appropriate bookthat fosters predictability may not be available in Big Book format

so the teacher may decide to create a Big Book from the text. Other

material may be produced in large format for the purpose of

shared reading, such as nursery rhymes, songs, poems and

notices.

Shared reading also gives teachers an opportunity to read from

various non-fiction texts, including dictionaries (Goodwin andRedfern, 2000). As teachers read passages from science and social

science texts, they can draw pupils’ attention to the use of layout,

headings, numbered sections, bold print, contents, index and

glossary. Such discussions help young children understand the

differences between narrative and informative texts. This under-

standing assists the children’s own reading and writing of different

genres.

The teacher in one reception class selected the Big Book of Rosie’s

Walk (Hutchins, 1987) for shared reading. During the first reading,

the emphasis was on the sheer enjoyment of the text. Never-

theless, the teacher followed the print with a pointer as she read.

During the second reading, she talked about some of this print:

Teacher: Can you remember what this first page says?

Rosie the

Children: hen went for a walk

Teacher: Yes. Rosie the hen went for a walk. So where does

it say hen? You come and show me, Brian.

[Brian points to the word hen with the pointer.]

Teacher: Yes, that’s right. How many letters are there in

hen?

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Anna: Three.

Teacher: Yes, that’s right. What are the letters?

Tina: h-e-n.

Teacher: Yes, h-e-n.

Later in this shared reading, the children commented on the other

main character in the story:

Sam: It doesn’t sayfoxanywhere.

Teacher: No, it doesn’t, but we know the fox is in the story

don’t we?

Michelle: We can see the picture.

Teacher: Yes, that’s right, the fox is always there. What is the

first letter forfox?

Sam: f

Teacher: Yes, the letterf.

Jane: And it’s got anx.

Teacher: It has, but there is another letter in between. I’ll

writefandx, but what else do we need forfox?

[She places an emphasis on the o.]

Engaging the children thus, the teacher continued talking about

the three letters in fox. This excerpt shows how the enjoyment of

the story was followed by a consideration of the words used aboutthe two main characters. Even though the wordfoxis not written

in the text, it became significant.

Slaughter’s (1992) also writes about work on Rosie’s Walkwith a

first year class. After the teacher read the story, the class spent a

week engaged in a various activities based on the text. The letters

R and H became a major focus of the print. On the Tuesday, a

group of children looked through the book in search of words be-ginning with R or H. Then they identified the children in the class

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whose names started with these letters. The class worked on

charts of words that begin with R or H. In addition to those words

they found in Rosie’s Walk, the children added others. In all, they

produced eleven words for each letter. They followed the story bywriting, making puppets, and listening to other stories by Pat

Hutchins.

Teachers do not have to choose between story reading and shared

reading. Both have a part in children’s literacy development. The

daily story reading is about the story and sometimes the activities

that flow naturally from it and from the children’s interest in it. The

shared reading allows for closer consideration of the print,although many additional activities can flow from the reading. But

the enjoyment of the text is in all cases paramount. As Brenda

Parkes (2000) notes, ‘the first purpose of shared reading is to pro-

vide children with an enjoyable reading experience’ (p1). The

nature of literacy activities must not be allowed to become so

analytical that the children lose interest in the stories, books and

reading.

Sustained silent reading

Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) is a natural activity that gives sup-

port to story readings. When young children are given a chance to

engage in SSR, they can act out reading-like behaviours. And they

have the opportunity to read a well-loved book on their own, using

the model that has been provided by the adult through numerous

story readings and shared readings. Not every child will readsilently. The youngest will vocalise as they read, and some children

will comment on a picture or the relationship of the story to their

own life. But each child is moving toward silent reading.

Other acronyms have been used to describe SSR such as Sustained

Quiet Un-Interrupted Reading Time (SQUIRT) and Drop Every-

thing and Read (DEAR). In one year 1 classroom, the children had

an allocated time for BE A Reader (BEAR). Capitalising on theacronym the teacher encouraged an exploration of books about

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bears. Pictures, models, toys, and the children’s own writing about

Winnie the Pooh, Paddington, Big Bear, Little Bear and other bears

added to the children’s excitement and interest.

Typically, teachers use a short period for SSR every day. For ease of

organisation, this is usually just before or after a break. Trelease

(1995) describes a classroom where the children selected a book

before they went to lunch and left it on their desk ready for SSR

time in the ten minutes after lunch. This short period of silent

reading adds up to almost an hour of concentrated reading each

week.

The children select their own books during this reading period and

are not required to report on what they read. Trelease (1995)

stresses that adults in the room must also read during this time, as

this gives children a strong model of reading. Hart-Hewins and

Wells (1990), however, suggest that the teacher may want to use

SSR as a time to hold individual reading conferences. Considering

the differing views, Campbell and Scrivens (1995) note that the

best course of action will be determined by the overall ethos of theclassroom. In classrooms where there is a dynamic literacy pro-

gramme operating, with an enthusiastic teacher who supports

literacy activities, modelling during SSR is not essential. When

there is less emphasis on literacy, modelling appears to be re-

quired to keep the children reading. The real issue may be to en-

sure that SSR is organised so that the young children are aware of

the nature and importance of this worthwhile activity.

Individual reading

The individual reading activity can be viewed in a number of ways.

First, it might be seen as a one-to-one interaction where the adult

reads to the child. This type of interaction is especially important

for children who have not had experiences of story readings before

they began school and even though they have daily story readings

and shared reading in the classroom. Individual story readingsallow the teacher or other adults to ensure that the child is

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involved and is contributing to the story and beginning to pick up

on print features.

Alternatively, the individual reading activity can be used for indivi-

dual reading conferences. It is the child who reads to the teacher

during these conferences, especially in the later years of primary

school. Holdaway (1979) maintains that the shared book ex-

perience fosters individual reading as the child rereads a book they

have heard read by the teacher. After the reading, adult and child

can discuss the content of the text and discuss various aspects of

print.

To see how this works, I studied 6-year-old Leah’s individual read-

ing of Good-Night Owl (Hutchins, 1972) with her Year 1 teacher

(Campbell, 1990, p47-53). In the following transcript, the original

text appears in parentheses after her miscues:

Leah: The starlings chittered,

tweet-tweet (twit-twit) tweet-tweet (twit-twit)

and owl tried to sleep.

The jays screamed,ark ark,

and owl tried to sleep.

The cuckoo croaked (called)

Teacher: The cuckoo

Leah: called

Leah could read a good deal of this book, partly because she re-

membered the text and partly because she paid attention to theprint. The teacher had to determine when to mediate in the read-

ing. She ignored the miscue of tweet-tweet(twit-twit), but she did

support Leah’s reading when the child read croaked for called. Us-

ing the simple strategy of starting the sentence again, the teacher

gave Leah time to reflect, to consider the word in context, and to

self-correct.

Later, once the whole book had been read, the teacher developeda dialogue with Leah that emphasised meaning:

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Teacher: Why couldn’t he sleep?

Leah: Because they were all making a noise.

Teacher: Why do you think they were all making a noise?Mmh?

Leah: Because it’s still-umh...

Teacher: In when?

Leah: Because it’s not night yet.

Teacher: It isn’t night time. And what do owls do at night

time?

Leah: They – They don’t – umh – They don’t sleep in

night and they wake up....

It was evident that Leah knew about the story even though she was

hesitant in some of her attempts to explain. With support from the

teacher she was able to sustain her involvement with the text

throughout the individual reading. Individual reading activities

build children’s confidence and enable them to behave like

readers.

Buddy reading

The everyday demands of the classroom limit the time the teacher

and other adults can spend working alongside a young child with

a book. Consequently, some schools have initiated schemes such

as buddy reading (Cunningham and Allington, 1999) and pairing ayear four or five reader with a younger child. Once a week, the

older child goes to read a book with the younger child.

Buddy reading has a number of benefits. First, the older children

must practice reading the picture book to ensure that it is read well

for the younger ones. For some 9- and 10-year-olds, that practice

can be important. As Cunningham and Allington indicate, it ‘legi-

timises the reading and rereading of very easy books’ (p38).Further, the important teaching role helps the older children with

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their own reading development, and does much for their self-

esteem. At the same time, the younger buddies benefit from the

interactive experience of the story reading.

In addition, the buddy system gives the younger children positive

role models. In particular, young boys may benefit from the pre-

sence of successful boy readers, especially as most early years

classrooms are staffed by women. As Cunningham and Allington

remind us, ‘most elementary teachers are women and...most poor

readers are boys’ (p37). Some schools extend buddy reading to in-

clude adults from the community.

As the front cover of this book shows, buddy reading also occurs

naturally in a home setting. The secondary aged child in the pic-

ture is reading to a nursery child, who is utterly involved. During

the reading a primary aged child was attracted by the story and be-

came part of the audience. When young children know how

interesting stories can be, they are on the lookout for someone of

whatever age to read to them.

Paired reading

In addition to buddy reading, classmates can work together to

read a book. So paired reading (or partner reading) can operate

with two 5-year-old reception children or two 6-year-old Year 1

children helping each other to read a book. Cunningham and

Allington (1999) suggest that the teacher designate a number of

different activities to create some variety for paired reading:

During a ‘take turn day,’ the two children read alternate pages. They

also help each other as the need arises. This is likely to be the most

frequently used form of paired reading; the children soon become

familiar with the approach and are able to use it successfully.

An ‘ask question day’ requires both children to read each page silently

and ask each other a question about the text before proceeding. In

some first- and second-year classrooms, the teacher may encourage

the children to ask questions about features of the print on one day and

to encourage a greater attention to the story content on another day.

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Another day might be used as a ‘sticky note day.’The teacher gives the

children a limited number of sticky notes to mark what interests them.

Alternately, the children can concentrate on what they consider to be

important or aspects they find confusing.

A ‘you decide day’ permits the children to make their own decision as

to how they will operate the paired reading on that day.

As Cunningham and Allington note, these different forms of

paired reading create variety, encourage the children to engage in

both silent and oral reading, and lead them to reflect on what they

have read.

Guided reading

In a typical guided reading time, the teacher works with a small

group of children. Six is the ideal size for a group. Each child has a

copy of a book they can manage and enjoy. For younger children,

their management of the text is supported when the book has

already been read aloud to the class. The purpose of guided read-

ing is to ‘develop independent readers who question, consider

alternatives, and make informed choices as they seek meaning’(Mooney, 1990, p47). She sees the teacher’s role as being to guide

the children to predict as they read, to sample features of print, to

confirm that meaning has been maintained, and to self-correct

using other strategies to regain meaning.

The teacher then guides the children with their reading of a certain

book, but does so in ways that will help the children to read other

texts independently in the future. Fountas and Pinnell (1996) pro-vide detailed information on this activity. Chomsky-Higgins (1998)

suggests the choice of a book that the children can read

successfully but that does offer some challenges. If the book is new

to the children she tells them the title, and together they go

through the book to get an idea of its meaning and she asks the

children to read certain specific words. After this supportive intro-

duction, the children read the book aloud, while she moves

around the group to listen in and guide when needed. A brief

discussion may follow the reading.

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Literature circles

Young children also need reading to help them make sense of life

(Short, 1999). Short argues that children should not have to wait

until they’ve developed extended reading strategies to find outthat reading involves critique and inquiry. In literature circles, as in

guided reading, the teacher works with a small group of children

who each have a copy of the same book. During literature circles,

however, the primary interest centres on thinking about and dis-

cussing the story.

When quality picture books are read aloud, the children want to

discuss what they see and hear. They are keen to express theirthoughts and feelings about the books that are read to them or

that they have read in small groups (Roser and Martinez, 1995). At

first the teacher will have to prompt and guide them, but even-

tually the children will offer their own comments.

The children’s participation in literature circles is not surprising:

even toddlers at home respond reflectively to stories they hear

read aloud. When I read The Very Lonely Firefly(Carle, 1995) to mygranddaughter Alice when she was 3 years 11 months old she im-

mediately requested a repeat reading. But within a few pages of

that second reading, as the lonely firefly searches for other fireflies,

Alice interrupted me to remark: ‘It will find the other fireflies on

the last page. Then it won’t be lonely anymore.’ The last page, with

its illustrations of flashing lights, is a particular attraction of this

book. Alice returned to her theme when we reached it. ‘There’s all

its friends’ (Campbell, 1999, p89-90). Her comments show Alice’s

involvement with the story and her empathy for the firefly as it

searched for others.

Adults and teachers can encourage children’s responses to reading

at home and in the classroom as they read aloud with them. And

such responses can be developed in literature circles as the chil-

dren progress through the primary years.

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What children learn from story readings provides a strong base for

their work during other interactive reading activities. In addition,

as Chapter 1 showed, reading stories with young children can also

serve as the foundation for interactive writing activities. This sub-ject is examined in Chapter 8.

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8Interactive writing activities

Just as teachers point out print features in Big Books to assist

reading, they can write in front of the class to help children

become better writers. During shared writing (Cambourne,

1988), the teacher talks about the piece as it’s developed, so mak-

ing the children aware of the writing process. Interactive writing,guided writing and writing conferences also require the children’s

involvement as they contribute to the writing, or share their own,

by considering their thoughts, sentences, words and letters.

Shared writing

The stories, songs, poems and rhymes the children already know

are good starting points for shared writing. I observed how a

teacher in a pre-school class used the popular nursery rhyme,

Humpty Dumpty, to create a brief shared writing time with the

children (Campbell, 1996, p51-52). The class had talked about the

rhyme and had often sung it. The teacher wrote on a large sheet of

paper in front of the children encouraging them to tell her the

words:

Teacher: So if I write

Humpty Dumpty

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Now, what comes next?

Children: sat on a wall

Teacher: I’ll write

sat on a...

Children: wall

Teacher: wall.

There we are.

Humpty Dumpty

Teacher/children: sat on a wall.

Teacher: Now

Humpty

Children: Dumpty

had a great fall.

This simple example illustrated how the children recited the

rhyme and the teacher tried to keep up with their pace. Her goal

was to support the children in understanding the writing process

and the link between words spoken and words presented in print.

She encouraged their contributions by asking questions such as

‘Now, what comes next?’ and by using rising intonation and paus-

ing such as ‘sat on a....’

This shared writing activity sometimes included shared reading.

After she wrote down the first sentence, the teacher pointed to the

words and recited them with the children. When the rhyme was

complete, she put the printed rhyme on the classroom wall beside

other rhyme sheets that had been created during shared writing.

The class used the sheets all through the year to recite the rhymes

while the teacher pointed to the words.

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Teachers of reception children usually spend longer considering

each word as it is written. They might comment on letters and

letter-sounds, and make links between the first letter of some

words and of other words the children know.

Geekie, Cambourne, and Fitzsimmons (1999) observe a reception

classroom where the teacher followed a structure they describe as

follows:

i) Making a clear statement about what is going to be written.

ii) Identifying each word in succession.

iii) Either

a. recalling the identified word from memory

b. finding it in the print environment of the

classroom and copying it

c. segmenting it into phonemes and making

sound-symbol matches

iv) Re-reading the developing text in order to remember what hasalready been written and what remains to be written. (p40)

The teacher used what she called ‘blackboard stories’: stories

developed with the children, to link to other print in the classroom

including the word wall. This regular practice enabled the children

gradually to write stories on their own.

Anderson (1995) adopted a different strategy in a Year 1 and 2

mixed classroom with 6- and 7-year-old children. To encouragethe children to think about choices when writing, she selected a

text they knew and loved – The Very Hungry Caterpillar – and

printed the story in large text for all the children to see. She asked

them whether they would have used the same words and phrases

as the author had. A great deal of discussion ensued as the chil-

dren changed aspects of the story. The start of the story became

One dark cloudy night a tiny speckled egg lay on a leaf.One bright Saturday morning the warm sun came up and – crack! – out

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of the egg came a tiny and very hungry caterpillar.

She scrambled about to look for some food.

On Sunday she ate through one nice ripe apple. But she was still

hungry.On Monday she ate through two red shiny apples, but she was still

hungry.

On Tuesday she ate through three squidgy plums, but she was still

hungry. (p48)

Every redrafting involved discussion, which meant that the chil-

dren were talking about meaning, sentences, phrases, words and

letters. And because it seemed natural to do so, the teacher found

herself using terms such as adjective, pronoun, noun and verb. At

one point, they even discussed the notion of tense in story writing.

We see that the caterpillar became ‘she’ rather than ‘he.’ Starting

with a Saturday changed the link between days of the week and

events. The class added adjectives to describe each fruit. For a

while they played with alliterations, debating the use of ‘plump

purple plums’ before settling for their own word: squidgy. The

teacher typed up the revised text on the computer put and put it in

book format for the class library, where it became one of the most

popular books.

Elsewhere, a year 6 class rewrote the picture book story Giggle,

Giggle, Quack(Cronin, 2002), but changing it so that the story was

written from the duck’s perspective. As always a reading of the

story to the class and discussion preceded the writing. The chil-

dren’s recreation of the story was quite imaginative, as we can see

from the way one of the boys in the class rewrote the beginning of

the story:

‘Hmmm... Farmer Brown is going away and Bob doesn’t

know a thing about farms. We can do anything we like if

we utilise this note system.’ Duck walked over to the shed

where the other animals were.

‘What do you want for dinner?’ he shouted.Twenty-nine minutes later the pizza arrived and all

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the animals started to eat. He had left a note for Bob saying

that every Tuesday was pizza night.

‘Oh, that Bob is so gullible!’ duck laughed.

Well-known stories are a good basis for other shared writing ex-

periences. Johnson and Louis (1985) assert that writing literary

letters also creates genuine opportunities for writing. They suggest

that children might write their own letters to a character in a fami-

liar story, such as Mike fromMike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel

(Burton, 1977), and the teacher could reply. In a classroom where

The Very Hungry Caterpillar has been read, the teacher might

choose to reply to a letter such as the one shown in Figure 15,which was written by a Year two child.

In particular, the teacher might wish to pick up on the scientific in-

quiry which appears in the last sentence: ‘How long are you going

to stay in your cocoon?’

In an example drawn from work with older primary children,

Johnson and Louis suggest that the class could work together to

compose such a letter, the teacher leading the discussion with thechildren and scribing their thoughts. The teacher can emphasise

on different features of the writing process to suit what the class

needs at the time. The emphasis will be mainly on meaning, but

the teacher may also draw the class’s attention to the print features

of the letters, words, phrases and sentences the children select.

Interactive writing

McCarrier, Pinnell and Fountas (1999) suggest that while shared

writing is an important literacy activity for young children, it’s pos-

sible to involve the children even further in what they call inter-

active writing. Interactive writing proceeds like shared writing, but

the children take turns writing the words in front of the class, sup-

ported and guided by the teacher. The teacher also writes some of

the words as part of that support.

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As these authors point out, ‘sharing the pen is not simply a ritual’;instead, there is instructional value every time the child writes

with the pen in front of the class (p21). They argue that interactive

writing works well for children from a range of linguistic back-

grounds and ‘for those transitioning into English literacy’ (pxvi)

because the children are actively engaged in the writing.

They maintain that the primary value of writing activities lies in

the process, not the end product. Interactive writing provides anexcellent opportunity for teachers to determine the children’s

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Figure 15: Letter to the Hungry Caterpillar

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learning needs and plan an activity accordingly, whether for the

whole class or a small group. In both cases, the conversation about

the writing topic is continuous. The teacher should also discuss

the composing process, the conventions of writing, and theinteresting features of certain words. For example, when the class

is working with the Humpty Dumpty rhyme, the teacher might

want to make the rime unit of all, wall, andfalla central feature of

discussion.

In one of the many examples given by McCarrier, Pinnell and

Fountas (1999), the writing was stimulated by a classroom story

reading of Pancakes, Pancakes(Carle, 1990). The book linked withthe class’s study of food and nutrition, and Eric Carle was one of

the children’s favourite authors. During interactive writing, the

class produced a list of pancake ingredients, a list of favourite

pancake toppings, and a recipe for making pancakes. Each piece

of writing required the children to think and talk about writing and

also to help in the process as they shared the pen.

Guided writing

In guided writing the teacher also works with a group of, ideally,

four to eight children. The time is generally used either as a group

shared writing enterprise, in which the teacher and children work

collaboratively on a piece of writing or as a mini-lesson, in which

the teacher works with a small group of children with similar

needs on a particular feature of writing. For example, the group

may decide to write a letter to a character in a story, the teacheremphasising both meaning and form. Because the group is small,

each child can input more and remain involved. Collaborative

writing concentrates on the production of the content, but fea-

tures of print are also discussed.

Graves (1994) describes the beginning of the writing in one recep-

tion classroom:

Teacher: What do I want to say? Let’s see.

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‘Billy and I go for walks.’

Help me.

B...il...ly (She says the word very slowly)

Help me with the first sound ‘B.’What letter do I write here?

Brendan: B. I’ve got that one in my own name. It’s easy. (p49)

This is an example of aspects of print being discussed. Like many

children in reception, Brendan can use knowledge of his name to

help in producing other writing.

As a mini-lesson, guided writing gives children concentrated time,

in a small group, to consider some aspect of writing conventions.The objective of the short lesson may be to think about letters and

sounds, punctuation, vocabulary, or spelling. For instance, a

teacher working with a small group of Year 1 children wanted to

remind them of sentence conventions began by looking at each

sentence of a short book and talked about the uppercase letters

and punctuation. Then they read a piece of classroom print

developed from a shared writing, again concentrating on the

uppercase letters and punctuation. Finally, the children moved on

to independent writing, and the teacher confirmed that their use

of an initial capital letter and sentence ending was correct.

Although mini-lessons in guided writing are brief, they can

support children’s literacy development, especially when directed

by the teacher to meet their needs at the time.

Writing conferencesAs they respond to stories, children write in a various formats.

They might create a drawing accompanied by writing or make

their own book. One-on-one writing conferences (Calkins, 1983)

are particularly useful if held immediately after the child has

finished writing, so this is still at the forefront of the child’s mind.

Furthermore, focusing on a single aspect of writing enhances

understanding of that feature.

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In one classroom, the teacher chose It’s My Birthday (Oxenbury,

1993) for a story reading. The central theme is about making a cake

– a number of animals work together to make it. The second page

of the book reads:

‘It’s my birthday and

I’m going to make a cake.

I need some eggs.’

‘I’ll get you some eggs,’

said the chicken.

After several readings of the story, some children decided to make

their own recipe books. Five-year-old Kate wrote about making afruitcake (see Figure 16). She was clearly in charge of her writing

and used several invented spellings and a mixture of uppercase

and lowercase letters in her recipe.

After Kate finished writing, she had a writing conference with the

teacher. The teacher praised Kate’s writing and talked to her about

one of the words she had written unconventionally:

Teacher: I think this would make a great fruitcake. You’ve

done well with your writing.

And to finish we have to ... [She points to 6- Bac in

the ovn]

Kate: Bake in the oven.

Teacher: That’s right. When we write bakeit is b-a-k-e. It is

just like cake.

Kate: C-a-k-e.

Teacher: I know another one that begins with m.

Kate: Make.

Teacher: That’s right, make.

Kate: M-a-k-e.

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Teacher: Good girl, that’s how to write make. Well done,

Kate; it’s a lovely recipe.

Kate: Takeis one as well.

Teacher: It is, isn’t it?

The teacher helped Kate examine the word bake, then they dis-cussed other rime words in the -akefamily. Interestingly, although

the teacher was ready to end the conference, Kate was in full swing

and came up with another word: take. The conference may have

been short, but it was personal so there’s a good chance that Kate

would recall the -akewords in the future and write others like it,

such as lake and rake(Goswami and Bryant, 1990).

Reading stories can lead children into a variety of interactive writ-ing activities. Sometimes the teacher leads the children in certain

directions at others the children want to explore further the story

they have just heard, such as when the children decided to create

recipe books after hearing It’s My Birthday. The next chapter dis-

cusses other directions in which story reading might take.

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Figure 16: Kate’s Fruitcake Recipe

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9Mathematics, science and

social studies activities

ome stories bring other curriculum areas to the children’s

attention as they ask questions related to the story. Their

questions may lead to discussions about content relating

to mathematics, science and social studies.

Mathematics

In Chapter 2 we saw how The Very Hungry Caterpillarled a recep-

tion class to explore aspects of mathematics and science. The chil-

dren encountered the sequence of numbers 1 to 5 as the cater-

pillar consumed the apple, pears, plums, strawberries and

oranges. For most children, the sequence became firmly esta-blished, and they began to recognise the quantities of 1 to 5. When

drawing pictures of the five fruits labelling them and creating their

own list of five other fruits, their understanding of numbers was

established more firmly. The children enjoyed drawing other

pictures of the caterpillar, especially recapturing the bold face, and

their interest led to other mathematics. The teacher encouraged

the children to measure the length of their drawn caterpillar with

math cubes. Counting those cubes involved numbers up to 14.

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Many storybooks have mathematical features that the teacher can

emphasise or follow up as the children begin to talk about them.

For instance, in Hairy Maclary from Donaldson’s Dairy (Dodd,

1983), each dog can be seen coming from its house as they join thepack. The houses are numbered 86, 84 and 82. In one reception

classroom, the children noticed these numbers in the illustrations

and they wanted to talk about the number on their own houses.

Children and teacher asked a numerous questions, such as ‘Which

is the largest number?’ The class then proceeded to create a

collage of the ‘roads where we live,’ painting the numbers on each

house. In this instance, the teacher had planned none of these

activities; the children’s interest set them on the mathematical

path. The children were excited by the attention given to the num-

bers in the story and the numbers on their own houses and they

learned from this and from concentrating on ‘big numbers’.

A teacher might collect books that are exploring a mathematical

theme. For instance, One Tiger Growls(Wadsworth, 1999) provides

a sequence from 1 to 20 as various animals and their sounds are

presented. Accordingly the sequence of 1 to 20 can be learned, or

consolidated with an enjoyable story reading. Shatzer (2008)

demonstrates how she used The Wolf’s Chicken Stew(Kasza, 1996)

to develop some mathematical themes with her pupils, and list

other books she has found helpful in linking literacy and mathe-

matics.

ScienceIn the reception classroom presented in Chapter 2, the children

explored aspects of science after hearing The Very Hungry Cater-

pillar. The life cycle of the butterfly became part of their know-

ledge base simply from the rereading of the story plus a song about

it. Importantly, as the children sang the song, they recognised that

the life cycle could ‘go on forever’. The story also generated interest

in what other animals eat. Then the class explored which foods are

nutritious and which are not. It is not difficult to see how The Very

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Hungry Caterpillar led to thinking about such matters and thus

about aspects of science.

In Sniff-Snuff-Snap!(Dodd, 1995) the story of the animals and the

water hole creates scientific interests for young children. The se-

quence or cycle of rain and evaporation are part of the story, and

this intrigues children. So does the role of the animals that are sus-

tained by the water from the water hole in the otherwise arid land.

This generates questions about not only the water supply but also

their own water supply. Knowing about a wide range of children’s

books enables primary school teachers to make connections from

stories into science.

Social studies

A story like Sniff-Snuff-Snap! can also take children into other

areas of the curriculum. What is it like in a country such as the one

shown in this story? Discussions about desert lands often arise

from stories such as Sniff-Snuff-Snap!An interest in geography

may start from other stories, too. Possum Magic(Fox, 1983) con-

tains a map of Australia that indicates the route taken by the two

possums. The possums’ journey and the ‘people food’ they eat

capture the attention, feelings and minds of young children, and

many want to learn more about Australia, the animals that live

there and the foods mentioned. Creating a collage of the unique

animals of Australia is an obvious follow-up to hearing this story as

the possum, koala, wombat, kangaroo and duck-billed platypus

all intrigue young children. Mem Fox’s other books such as KoalaLou (1988) and Wombat Divine(1995) add to the children’s know-

ledge and, most important, are stories they will love.

There are no maps in the story of Rosie’s Walk(Hutchins, 1987), but

Rosie creates a trail that can be mapped by children as they follow

her path through the farmyard. A wall collage of Rosie’s journey

helps young children envision the story and begin to understand

the nature of maps. When the children are captivated by the story,the teacher may decide to take them on walks in the local environ-

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ment and then create maps of that walk. Creating a map of their

route to school is another possibility. In this case the geography is

local, helping children understand their own environment.

The simple story of When I Was Little Like You (Walsh, 1997) also

links to other curriculum areas. Here a little girl named Rosie talks

with her grandmother and shows her various sights such as a train

and an ice-cream van. In each instance, the grandmother observes

that ‘When I was little like you it used to be different,’ and tells her

how things used to be when she was young. The historical changes

over two generations are the most important features of the story,

although relationships are also significant. The story captures thechildren’s interest in how life used to be long ago, and stimulates

an interest in history. Often, the class can link this story to family

and community history. It inspires children to explore how things

used to be when their parents were young.

Stories can be a useful means of introducing young children to

history. Hoodless (1998) devotes a complete book to history and

English in the primary years, exploring the numerous connectionsthat can be made. The children might also link a classroom story

to a theme that is already being pursued: in a case study of recep-

tion children in England, Hoodless reports how after enjoying The

Three Billy Goats Gruff, the children made a connection with an

existing theme on Sir Robert Peel and the police. They decided to

use the role-play area, which was already arranged as a Victorian

police station, to create and hang ‘wanted’ posters of the troll.

Wendy Hood (1994) shows how one teacher worked with a class of

Year 3 children from diverse ethnic backgrounds to link story read-

ings and social studies themes. The children began by trying to

find information about Native Americans. Their research over a

period of weeks led them in a various directions. They pursued

such questions as ‘Where did they live? Where do they live now?

What holidays do they celebrate?’ Their findings also raised ques-

tions about slavery. So to develop their understanding, the teacher

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10A last word

Story readings are enjoyable and instructive. Every teacher

of young children can name a story with which they have

particularly captivated children. In one classroom, the chil-

dren particularly enjoyed Hairy Maclary from Donaldson’s Dairy

(Dodd, 1983). The main characters are all dogs. Among them are:

Hercules Morse

as big as a horse

and Hairy Maclary

from Donaldson’s dairy.

As the dogs’ adventure unfolded, the children’s excitement per-

sisted, and when the reading was over, more than one child asked

for it to be read again. Because the characters are so loveable,

young children want to return again and again to the story. Andthe children learn more from each reading.

Luckily for the children, there are several stories about Hairy

Maclary (e.g. Dodd, 1985a, 1985b) and other central characters for

children to enjoy. Children who are familiar with Hairy Maclary

and his friends become excited when the characters unexpectedly

reappear in Slinky Malinki, open the door (Dodd, 1993). In one

infant classroom, the 5-year-olds became involved in a form ofauthor study as they listened to, discussed, commented on and

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followed the many rhyming books by this author. And there are

numerous other authors who have produced stories and

characters that capture children’s attention. We noted earlier the

rhyme in Fix-It-Duck(Alborough, 2001)

A leak in the roof.

Oh, what bad luck!

This is a job for...

Fix-It Duck.

and how it encouraged one child’s involvement and love of Duck,

Sheep, Goat and Frog in this and other Duck books. Koala Lou

(Fox, 1988) and The Gruffalo (Donaldson, 1999) are among themany picture books which lead children eventually into reading

chapter books.

The enjoyment children receive from story readings sparks their

desire to read for themselves in a way that no worksheet can ever

emulate. The thousands of delightful books available for reading

aloud provide the foundation for literacy learning. Guided by the

story, the children follow their interests by drawing, writing, paint-ing, making puppets, acting, reciting and moving on to areas of the

curriculum. Moreover, children develop their phonic knowledge

from the meaningful contexts of story readings (Campbell, 2004).

The characters from stories have a way of reappearing as part of

children’s imaginative play. Chambers (1995) gives a vivid account

of a little girl who found a way to walk alone along a poorly lit path

by imagining that she was escorted by Little Red Riding Hood. Thecharacters from children’s stories become the children’s friends.

And words, phrases and sentences transfer from the stories into

their own lexicon.

Each chapter in this book has emphasised the literacy learning

which can follow from the well prepared and enthusiastic reading

of a story. Little wonder that so many teachers recognise the bene-

fits of Reading stories with young children and ensure that it is animportant part of every day.

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131

activities 5, 75-89

alliteration 60, 64, 66-

alphabet 64-65

arts and crafts 85-87

author study 119

be a reader (BEAR) 95-

96big books 91-95

blackboard stories 105

book making 82-85

book quality 45-62

boys 8, 99

buddy reading 98-99

class book 30, 84

collage 27

counting 113-114

cultural heritage 48-51

dictionaries 69

drawing 26-30, 78-81

drop everything and

read (DEAR) 95

enjoyment of literacy 2-

3, 9, 19, 119-120

fairy tales 50, 55

geography 115-116

getting started, 37-44

guided reading 100

guided writing 109-110

history 116-117

home link with school

individual reading 96-98

interactivestory

readings 15-36, 41-

interactive writing 107-

109

International Reading

Association 4

invented spellings 30,

48, 72-73

letter learning 10-11, 65

letter writing 107-108

literacy development 6-

8, 9-11

literacy development at

home 4-6

literature circles 101

maps 115

mathematics activities

35, 113-114modeling reading 10

model making 87

narrative 45-62

nonfiction 61, 93

number learning 113-

114

nursery rhymes 49-50

one-to-one story

readings 10

onset 71

own names 70

paired (partner) reading

99-100

parents reading 4-5, 89

Index

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personal development

51-53

phonics 65-68

play 120

poetry 61, 68

predictable books 54-

preparing for a reading

38-40

print features 63-74

puppet-making 23, 87-

recipes 112

repeat readings 20-23

repetition in stories 56-

rhymes 3, 57-59, 88-89

rhythm 59-60

rime 71-72, 111-112

role play 76-78

science activities 30-34,

114-115

selecting a book 37-38

shared book

experience 91-95

shared reading 91-95

shared writing 103-106

singing rhymes 24-26

skills 46-48

social studies 115-117

songs 24-26, 88-89

spelling 72-73

stick puppets 23story performance 40-

story structure 10, 47

sustained silent reading

(SSR) 95-96

vocabulary

development 5

web for activities 77

word walls 69-72

writing 26-30, 78-81

writing conferences 84-

READING STORIES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN

Robin Campbell-Reading Stories With Young Children-Trentham Books (2009) - [PDF Document] (2024)